Outer planets exploration 1972–1985: Space Science Board, National Research Council, 1973. Publishing Office, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Ave., Washington, D.C. 20418.x + 39 pp

Abstract

Archaeoastronomy provides records of human thought in a much more direct form than other archaeological evidence, except ancient inscriptions. It may verify or contradict other kinds of evidence. Paleolithic Australian paintings provide astronomical evidence in accord with interpretations by modern Australian aborigines. Conversely, a megalithic monument at Crucuno shows that Pythagorean triangles were in use long before Pythagoras. Except for the Australian material, and some dubious evidence elsewhere, the European Megalithic first provides us with systematic evidence with emphasis on the winter solstice, associated with burial chambers. Lunar alignments indicate eclipses. Gigantic circles and long lines of large stones appear, widespread in Europe and into North Africa. In contrast to the importance of the ecliptic in Europe, early Chinese astronomy emphasized the Pole star, the equator, and the 28 asterisms marking the nightly passage of the moon. A multiple conjunction in the Great Square of Pegasus and Andromeda in 1953 BC provides the earliest Chinese date. Eclipse prediction occurred by the Shang dynasty and star maps were in use by the late centuries BC. The western tradition begins in Mesopotamia with Venus as Inanna and many western constellations are first attested there. An eclipse of 763 BCE was crucial in establishing Mediterranean chronology. Sophisticated planetary astronomy using mathematical formulae is attested from about 300 BCE. The spherical earth and the precession of the equinoxes were known. In Egypt, the basic mythology of Isis and Osiris is astronomical but not understood. Central to observations was the invention of the clepsydra, or water-clock. Gigantic star maps were produced in the 18th Dynasty. The 1460 year Sothic cycle and the 1507 year tropical cycle were both known. Many temples show solar or planetary alignments. From Tibet to SE Asia, temple cosmograms show astronomically identified figures (animals, humans, monsters) in scenes of known myths, associated with relevant alignments. World Ages and associated trees, directions, birds, animals, colors were widespread, best exemplified at Anghor Wat. In Micronesia and Polynesia, the words ‘astronomer’ and ‘navigator’ are the same. Model canoes with alignments to 32 stars were used in training. Those stars were incorporated in calendars. Polynesian myths are told in connection with astronomical and terrestial geography, sacred constructions and alignments. Myths of Maui are widespread in Oceania. In Alberta, Canada are many monuments of piled-up rocks; some show stellar alignments. These ‘medicine wheels’ were built from about 2500 BCE to the present. Astronomical myths are extensively recorded in North America, but seldom with adequate understanding of the astronomy. The relationship of kin-group and asterisms is widely attested. The Kern effigies are two giant snakes, one marking each of the solstices. In the S.W. U.S. alignments mark equinoxes, solstices, and the lunar standstills. The Pomo had records, kept as bundles of sticks, 13 to a year, with collections of 8, 64, and 512 years. The presence of written documents in Mesoamerica show technical knowledge of astronomy including eclipse tables, Venus tables, Mars tables all regarded as divinatory markers partially causative of warfare, expressed in the 52-year cycle of the Mesoamerican calendar. Alignments on Venus phenomena, some with striking visual effects, are generally accepted. Zenith passage is marked at Xochicalco. In South America, the Temple of the Fox at Buena Vista, Peru of about 2200 BC shows mythic associations with the winter solstice, still known today. At Cantogrande, Peru, long lines of boulders show interest in equinoxes, solstices, and zenith passage. At Chavin de Huantar, about 800 BCE, the summer solstice sun (of December) lights up the monstrous Lanzon monument. The Moche of Peru (ca. 550–700 CE) have murals and ceramics depicting astronomical myths. In Amazonia specific kin groups perform rituals enacting myths – Venus, Jupiter, and Rigel are assigned to the Sun moiety, Mars and the Pleiades to the Moon moiety. The recently published San Bartolo murals depict trees of the World Ages with accompanying sacrifices of birds, animals, and humans and a date 3 IK. A parallel series in the Borgia codex is associated with 4 House, the following day in the Mesoamerican calendar. This should be 23 June 182 CE and suggests that the true Maya calendar correlation is 208 years later than those generally accepted. The Aztecs said their calendar was invented by Cipactonal, Crocodile-Sun. This corresponds to the Egyptian Sebek, Crocodile, Aton, Sun-Disk, and Sebek-Re, Crocodile-Sun. There are correspondences with the Egyptian Sothic cycle and the Egyptian wandering year. Quetzalcoatl (Quetzal-Snake; Precious Twin) was born on 26 December 1 BCE corresponding to Egyptian ideas of Horus and Judaic ideas of Iaw with iconographic and mythical parallels between Egypt and Mesoamerica. More than 30 deities correspond between Egypt and Mesoamerica.