On the joint estimation of multiple adoption decisions: The case of sustainable agricultural technologies and practices in Ethiopia

The adoption and diffusion of sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) has become an important issue in the development‐policy agenda for sub‐Saharan Africa, especially as a way to tackle land degradation, low agricultural productivity and poverty. However, the adoption rates of SAPs remain below expected levels. This study analyses the factors that facilitate or impede the probability and level of adoption of interrelated SAPs, using recent data from multiple plot‐level observations in rural Ethiopia. Multivariate and ordered probit models are applied to the modelling of adoption decisions by farm households facing multiple SAPs, which can be adopted in various combinations. The results show that there is a significant correlation between SAPs, suggesting that adoptions of SAPs are interrelated. The analysis further shows that both the probability and the extent of adoption of SAPs are influenced by many factors: a household’s trust in government support, credit constraints, spouse education, rainfall and plot‐level disturbances, household wealth, social capital and networks, labour availability, plot and market access. These results imply that policy‐makers and development practitioners should seek to strengthen local institutions and service providers, maintain or increase household asset bases and establish and strengthen social protection schemes in order to improve the adoption of SAPs.

The study was conducted with the broad objective of determining the level of adoption of sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) among farmers in Ohaukwu Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Multistage, random, and systematic sampling procedures were employed to select 160 respondents for the study. The collected data were analyzed using relevant descriptive and inferential statistics suitable for each objective. The result showed that majority of the respondents were females who were married, having a mean age of 43 years and mean number of years of experience of 17. Majority of them acquired secondary school education while practicing Christianity and were engaged in the production of both crops and animals (mixed farming), having mean farm size of 0.8 ha in scattered plots and mean annual income of N71,400 which was regarded as low income. Most of the farmers were not members to any farmers’ cooperative society. The predominant SAPs adopted included crop rotation, compost manure, and use of tolerant varieties. Furthermore, socioeconomic characteristics of the rural farmers were observed to have strong influence on adoption of SAPs by the farmers. The constraints to the adoption of SAPs among farmers were socioeconomic, political, and institutional. The null hypothesis tested using F-test was rejected at 5% level of significance. Consequently, it was concluded that socioeconomic characteristics of farmers actually influenced adoption of SAPs, though there were identified constraints that limited the level of adoption of such SAPs which if mitigated will improve adoption of the SAPs. Based on the study findings, the policy recommendations were that relevant agencies should ensure vigorous dissemination of information to farmers on available windows to low interest rate agricultural credit facilities by the government; reform in land tenure system should be facilitated to support adoption of SAPs; Nigerian agricultural extension program should be restructured to reflect sustainable agricultural context and emphasis; and farmers should be encouraged to seek meteorological information to minimize risks from adverse weather conditions. This will encourage adoption of SAPs and ensure that maximum result is achieved.

Entrepreneurial Identity (EntID) offers a behavioural framework for analysing variation in Sustainable Agricultural Practices (SAP) adoption, income outcomes and participation in sustainability-oriented contract farming (CF) among smallholder farmers. This thesis investigates how identity-linked behavioural orientations, formalised through EntID, shape SAP adoption heterogeneity, the income effects associated with adoption and participation in CF in the Philippines. EntID is defined as a multidimensional behavioural orientation that integrates the cognitive traits of Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO), namely innovativeness, proactiveness and risk-taking, with Collective Environmental Attitude (CEA), which captures environmentally oriented values and group based commitments to ecological stewardship. EntID provides a behavioural lens for interpreting differentiated responses to sustainability interventions.The empirical analysis draws on survey data from 2,541 farming households in the Municipality of Carmen in North Cotabato and applies a multi method econometric strategy across three studies. First, latent class analysis (LCA) identifies distinct latent adopter classes based on SAP adoption patterns. Post classification multinomial regression assesses how EntID traits and contextual variables shape the probability of belonging to each class. The findings identify three EntID configurations and show that behavioural differentiation linked to EntID is a significant determinant of latent class membership. The configurations correspond to limited, selective and broad SAP adoption and reflect systematic variation in behavioural, structural and contextual characteristics.Second, ordinary least squares moderation models examine whether behavioural traits condition the income effects of SAP adoption. The results show that income gains from SAP adoption occur when adoption is accompanied by higher CEA. This indicates that normative environmental orientation strengthens the economic realisation of SAP benefits by supporting coordinated implementation of practices. The moderating effect indicates that behavioural dispositions shape income outcomes, and structural variables including market access, asset endowments and exposure to climatic variability account for distinct sources of income variation. Third, an instrumental variable probit model evaluates participation in CF schemes that promote SAP. The estimates indicate that innovativeness and proactiveness increase participation, indicating alignment between forward oriented dispositions and the requirements of contractual engagement. Risk-taking and CEA reduce participation, suggesting limited compatibility between these traits and the risk structure and normative expectations embedded in the CF schemes. These behavioural effects persist after accounting for contractual attributes. Structural factors such as credit reliance, market orientation and local environmental conditions display associations with CF participation.The thesis contributes to adoption research by applying behavioural constructs within an econometric framework to explain heterogeneity in SAP adoption, income outcomes and participation in sustainability oriented institutional arrangements. EntID provides explanatory value for interpreting how cognitive and normative orientations shape these outcomes, and the findings support the development and refinement of institutional arrangements aimed at promoting SAP adoption, enhancing farmer inclusion and strengthening rural development policy in smallholder agricultural systems.

Professional networks and access to extension as drivers of sustainable agricultural practices among Ghanaian oil palm farmers

This study was aimed to identify the factors that influence smallholder farmers’ decisions to adopt four different sustainable agricultural practices (i.e. improved variety, manure, soil and water conservation practices and herbicide) and the impact on income of smallholder farmers in Somodo watershed, Jimma zone. Multistage sampling procedure that involves a combination of purposive and random sampling procedures was employed. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 118 smallholder farmers in the watershed where integrated watershed management interventions were implemented by Jimma Agricultural Research Center from 2011-2018. A questionnaire was administered to the 118 selected smallholder farmers and quantitative data type were collected and used in this study. Descriptive statistics, a multivariate probit and Endogenous switching regression model were used to analyze the data. The study result shows that 25.51% of farmers apply manure on their farm plots in the watershed. Improved variety, soil and water management practices and herbicide are adopted by 35.63%, 42.91% and 12.15% of farmers, respectively. The finding of the study revealed that adoption of sustainable agricultural practices were determined by sex, age, cultivated land size, technical advice, tropical livestock unit, distance to main market, distance to agricultural extension agent office, plot distance, medium soil fertility, medium slope of land and red color of soil. The study concluded that the adoption of different sustainable agricultural practices in combination had a positive impact on income of smallholder farmers and their adoption was influenced by socioeconomic, institutional, and soil characteristics. Therefore, it is recommended that all stakeholders should pay due attention to empowering farmers to use different sustainable agricultural practices; improve soil health, increase crop productivity and income. The positive effect of technical advice on sustainable agricultural practice’s adoption suggests the need for increased accessibility of practical training mainly on preparing manure and compost, soil and water conservation practices and use of improved crops varieties.

BackgroundIncreasing agricultural productivity has long been touted as the main avenue to lifting the rural poor out of poverty and ensuring their sustainable development. The adoption of sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) is vital for spurring agricultural productivity in a changing climate environment. This paper examines the factors (including long-term climate variability) influencing the adoption of multiple SAPs (improved seeds, organic and inorganic fertilizers, and legume intercropping) and their impact on crop productivity.MethodologyThis study uses a nationally representative, geo-referenced plot-level data from a household survey in Nigeria. A multistage sampling technique was used to select households for the survey. The multivariate and ordered probit models were employed to estimate the adoption and intensity of adoption respectively, while the instrumental variables approach was used to examine the impact of the technologies on productivity.ResultsThe results provide evidence of interdependences between the SAPs, and that the factors that determine the initial adoption decisions are not necessarily the same factors that influence the intensity of use of the technologies. Climate risks in terms of high variability in temperature and rainfall affect SAPs adoption and their intensity of use. Access to agricultural extension, years of education and off-farm activities of the plot manager, and household wealth influence the use of improved seeds and inorganic fertilizer. Organic fertilizers are used mainly by households with large livestock units and those that live in areas with low soil nutrients and greenness index. In general, the intensity of SAPs adoption is influenced by wage and off-farm activities, and access to agricultural extension services. On the productivity side, inorganic fertilizer is positively correlated with plot-level productivity.ConclusionsThese results have implications for rural development policies in Nigeria aimed at nudging farmers to adopt multiple technologies on their plots, while enhancing an outward shift of their crop production functions. Providing technical and financial resources to extension agents is crucial so they could better reach rural smallholder households with the knowledge and benefits of these SAPs. In addition, smallholder households should diversify their livelihood portfolios to include non-farm income generating activities. Agricultural Research and Development should target factors that respond to climate variabilities (such as drought resistant and early maturing varieties). There is a need for improved infrastructures (road networks to allow easy market access as well as access to credit) that will allow farmers to access these innovations.

The study analyzed adoption of sustainable agricultural practices among plantain farmers in Yenagoa agricultural zone of Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Purposive and multi-stage random sampling techniques were used to select 100 plantain farmers from ten communities in the study area. Data were collected using structured questionnaire and were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics such as (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis. The findings showed that plantain farmers had a mean age of 39 years, 54.0% of plantain farmers were females while 46.0% were females. The result shows that planting time (82.0%), spacing (79.0%), pruning (65.0%) and new varieties (53.0%) were the various sustainable agricultural practices provided by extension in the study area. The study further shows that sucker multiplication ( = 2.76), post-harvest ( =2.60) and types of suckers ( = 2.28) were the sustainable agricultural practices adopted by plantain farmers. Plantain farmers were aware of the following sustainable agricultural practices provided by extension: spacing (100%), pruning (99%), planting time (97%), mulching (77.0%) and staking (61.0%). The study also shows that extension was effective in result demonstration ( =3.32), agricultural extension visit ( = 3.05), number of trainings ( =2.99), method demonstration ( =2.81), research extension linkage ( =2.77) and number of meetings scheduled that held ( =2.61). The ANOVA result showed that there was significant difference in the effectiveness of extension in sustainable agricultural practices dissemination among plantain farmers in the study area at 5% level of significance. The multiple regression analysis revealed that age (3.626***) and household size (4.165***) influenced the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices at 1% level of significance while marital status (2.578**), income (2.519**) and farm size (2.641**) influenced the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices at 5% level of significance. The study concluded that there was high level of adoption of sustainable agricultural practices by plantain farmers in the study area. Hence, it recommends that extension should vigorously promote the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices for increased plantain production.

This study employs panel data from the sub-Saharan Africa’s Intensification (Afrint) project to examine the impacts of sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) on crop production and hidden hunger. The dataset consists of 2368 households (4736 plots) across eight countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The study utilizes a multinomial endogenous switching regression model in the empirical estimations to account for sample selection bias caused by observed and unobserved farmer attributes. In addition, the study employed Mundlak fixed effects criteria to address plot level heterogeneity. The results show that joint adoption of SAPs improves total value of output and reduces hidden hunger, relative to adoption of SAPs in isolation. Specifically, an increase in total value of output is at most USD8,288.66/ha whiles decrease in cereal self-provisioning capacity is at most 647.69 kg per adult equivalent. The results therefore suggest that joint adoption of the SAPs should be promoted over adoption in isolation. The results also indicate that the benefits associated with adoption of SAPs, either in isolation or jointly, vary across Africa. This therefore implies that compatibility and potentials of the SAPs in various locations of Africa should be considered when promoting uptake of SAPs.

Determinants of adoption of multiple sustainable agricultural practices among smallholder farmers in Nigeria

Smallholder farmers, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), are the hardest hit by climate change impacts because of their over reliance on rainfall and other natural factors. This has led to the development and extension of a number of improved agricultural technologies and practices, otherwise known as sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs). The question that is often asked is whether or not agricultural credit can improve the adoption of SAPs. The objective of this study was to investigate the factors influencing access to agricultural credit and the effects on the adoption of SAPs in selected SSA countries. The Intensification of food crops agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (AFRINT II) data set were used for the study. The sample involved about 3,000 households from nine African countries, namely; Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Mozambque. A Poisson regression with endogenous treatment effect was estimated to address a possible selectivity bias. In all, 47.5% of the respondents, as against 52.5%, had access to credit. The commonest technologies adopted were intercropping, integrated nutrient management, crop rotation and soil and water conservation. The estimation results suggest that access to credit and formal education as well as land ownership lead to the adoption of SAPs. However, while group membership facilitates access to credit, households headed by relatively old farmers have lower probability of accessing credit than those headed by the young. Both government institutions and the private sector must work at upscaling credit supply to farmers in a more sustainable way while taking affirmative action in favour of female headed households. Formal education and land entitlement should also be promoted to step up adoption of the improved technologies. Keywords : Adoption, Agricultural credit, Endogenous treatment, Poisson regression, Sustainable Agricultural Practices

Sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) are conducive to increasing agricultural productivity and income while reducing resource and environmental stress. However, due to credit constraints in traditional financial markets, the adoption rate of SAPs remains low among smallholder farmers in rural China. Recently, the emergence of digital finance provides small farmers with a new way to obtain credit and alleviate their credit constraints, which may exert an impact on the adoption of SAPs. To verify this conjecture, this paper examines the impact and mechanism of digital finance use on SAPs adoption among smallholder farmers in China based on survey data collected from 903 apple growers. Empirical results showed that digital finance use significantly increases the number of SAPs adopted by smallholder farmers. Alleviating credit constraints, promoting information acquisition, and facilitating social interactions are the pathways through which digital finance use influences small farmers' SAPs adoption. Heterogeneity analysis showed that farmers with higher education level, smaller farming size, and who have received extension services adopt more SAPs with the use of digital finance. Therefore, it is suggested that the government should strengthen the construction of rural network infrastructure and provide training to promote smallholder farmers' access to digital financial services in a cost-effective and secure manner.

A taxonomy of barriers to the adoption of sustainable practices in the coffee farming process

Food insecurity, financial loss, and a decline in agricultural output are among the significant challenges to the global food chain caused by extreme climatic events, high variability and change, rapid urbanization, and land degradation. Therefore, it is essential to explore alternative, sustainable agricultural practices to meet the growing population’s food needs. Sustainable agriculture is foundational to farm management, rural development, and water conservation. This includes sustainable practices such as crop rotation, intercropping, and planting crops with varying rooting depths to maximize soil moisture absorption, as well as mulching to improve nutrient recycling and enhance productivity in smallholder cropping systems. The adoption of sustainable agricultural practices has become a priority for smallholder farmers, policymakers, extension agents, and agricultural experts to improve agricultural productivity, contribute to food security, and generate income. However, adoption rates have been slow, especially in Southern Africa, due to a lack of access to technology, financial constraints, limited information, and limited knowledge. This review was conducted using a comprehensive literature search on the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices by legume smallholders, examining various factors that contribute to the failure of legume smallholder farmers to adopt new agricultural practices. The timeframe of the reviewed literature was from 2010 to 2024. The results showed that smallholder farmers face numerous challenges, including limited access to technology, inadequate knowledge, and insufficient financial resources. Research conducted by the Water Research Commission (WRC) indicates that commercial farmers have access to technology, and this group of farmers possesses more substantial financial resources compared to smallholder farmers. In the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices. It is essential to strengthen the linkage between researchers, agricultural extension, and legume smallholder farmers to promote sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs). Smallholder farmers must be informed about such interventions and sustainable agricultural practices to improve rural livelihoods and enhance resilience, adaptation, and responsiveness.

This paper uses a multinomial endogenous treatment effects model and data from a sample of over 800 households and 3,000 plots to assess the determinants and impacts of adoption of sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) on maize yields and household incomes in rural Zambia. Results show that adoption decisions are driven by household and plot level characteristics and that the adoption of a combination of SAPs raises both maize yields and incomes of smallholder farmers. Adoption of improved maize alone has greater impacts on maize yields, but given the high cost of inorganic fertiliser that limits the profitability of adoption of improved maize, greater household incomes are associated rather with a package involving SAPs such as maize–legume rotation and residue retention.

Understanding how governance arrangements within agricultural supply chains influence farmers' SAP adoption for adaptation and mitigation practices