Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid membrane vesicles released by all human cells and are widely recognized to be involved in many cellular processes, both in physiological and pathological conditions. They are mediators of cell-cell communication, at both paracrine and systemic levels, and therefore they are active players in cell differentiation, tissue homeostasis, and organ remodeling. Due to their ability to serve as a cargo for proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which often reflects the cellular source, they should be considered the future of the natural nanodelivery of bio-compounds. To date, natural nanovesicles, such as exosomes, have been shown to represent a source of disease biomarkers and have high potential benefits in regenerative medicine. Indeed, they deliver both chemical and bio-molecules in a way that within exosomes drugs are more effective that in their exosome-free form. Thus, to date, we know that exosomes are shuttle disease biomarkers and probably the most effective way to deliver therapeutic molecules within target cells. However, we do not know exactly which exosomes may be used in therapy in avoiding side effects as well. In regenerative medicine, it will be ideal to use autologous exosomes, but it seems not ideal to use plasma-derived exosomes, as they may contain potentially dangerous molecules. Here, we want to present and discuss a contradictory relatively unmet issue that is the lack of a general agreement on the choice for the source of extracellular vesicles for therapeutic use.
Highlights
Cells are able to communicate with each other and with the surrounding environment through direct contact or the secretion of soluble factors [1,2,3,4]
Natural Killer (NK)-cell derived exosomes induce the killing of target cells, and this was demonstrated with both exosomes purified from supernatants of NK-cell culture and those purified from human plasma [82]
There is evidence demonstrating that heterologous exosomes released by mesenchymal stem cells may be considered as a reliable and safe source for therapeutic exosomes
Summary
Cells are able to communicate with each other and with the surrounding environment through direct contact or the secretion of soluble factors [1,2,3,4]. Among to the heterogeneous group of EVs, there are two main types of phospholipid vesicles, which have been classified in microvesicles (50–1000 nm) and are generated by outward budding of the plasma membrane, and exosomes (20–150 nm), generated by invagination of endosomal membranes and by the subsequent release of the multivesicular bodies (MVBs) [20,21]. Both EVs may help cells to dispose of cellular material and transfer signaling molecules, such as miRNAs, mRNAs, proteins, and lipids, to specific target cells. We describe the current knowledge and possible perspectives in exosome application for disease treatment, including regenerative medicine
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