Abstract
The omega−3 (n−3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acid are well known to protect against numerous metabolic disorders. In view of the alarming increase in the incidence of chronic diseases, consumer interest and demand are rapidly increasing for natural dietary sources of n−3 PUFAs. Among the plant sources, seed oils from chia (Salvia hispanica), flax (Linum usitatissimum), and garden cress (Lepidium sativum) are now widely considered to increase α-linolenic acid (ALA) in the diet. Moreover, seed oil of Echium plantagineum, Buglossoides arvensis, and Ribes sp. are widely explored as a source of stearidonic acid (SDA), a more effective source than is ALA for increasing the EPA and DHA status in the body. Further, the oil from microalgae and thraustochytrids can also directly supply EPA and DHA. Thus, these microbial sources are currently used for the commercial production of vegan EPA and DHA. Considering the nutritional and commercial importance of n−3 PUFAs, this review critically discusses the nutritional aspects of commercially exploited sources of n−3 PUFAs from plants, microalgae, macroalgae, and thraustochytrids. Moreover, we discuss issues related to oxidative stability and bioavailability of n−3 PUFAs and future prospects in these areas.
Highlights
Occurring fatty acids (FAs) can be classified according to their carbon-chain length and the number of double bonds
Stearidonic acid (SDA; C18:4 cis-6, 9, 12, 15), docosapentaenoic (DPA; C22:5 cis-7,10,13,16,19), eicosapentaenoic (EPA, 20:5 cis-5,8,11,14,17), and docosahexaenoic (DHA; C22:6 cis-4,7,10,13,16,19), are the n−3 LC- and very long-chain (VLC)-polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) produced from ALA in the body [2]
PUFAs are highly prone to free radical-induced lipid oxidative degradation, leading to the production of lipid peroxides [38], which may be harmful to health under long-term exposure [37,39]; detailed studies on such aspects are lacking
Summary
Occurring fatty acids (FAs) can be classified according to their carbon-chain length and the number of double bonds. Stearidonic acid (SDA; C18:4 cis-6, 9, 12, 15), docosapentaenoic (DPA; C22:5 cis-7,10,13,16,19), eicosapentaenoic (EPA, 20:5 cis-5,8,11,14,17), and docosahexaenoic (DHA; C22:6 cis-4,7,10,13,16,19), are the n−3 LC- and VLC-PUFAs produced from ALA in the body [2]. The most crucial dietary importance of ALA and SDA results from their serving as an essential precursor of the production of VLC-PUFAs (EPA and DHA) They are known to play a major role in controlling serum lipid profiles and hepatic steatosis by modifying the levels of n−6/n−3 in the liver by a mechanism different from those of EPA and DHA [13,14,15], which can be directly ingested from food or dietary supplements. PUFAs are highly prone to free radical-induced lipid oxidative degradation, leading to the production of lipid peroxides [38], which may be harmful to health under long-term exposure [37,39]; detailed studies on such aspects are lacking
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