Abstract
SummaryPrevious studies on microbes associated with deterioration of cultural heritage (CH) stoneworks have revealed a diverse microbiota adapted to stresses such as low nutrients, aridity and high salinity, temperatures and radiation. However, the function of these pioneer microbial communities is still unclear. This study examines bacterial and archaeal diversity in exfoliated and dark encrustation sandstone from Portchester Castle (UK) by 16S rRNA and functional gene analyses. Bacterial and archaeal communities from the exfoliated sites were distinctly different from the dark encrustation. Detected genera were linked to extreme environmental conditions, various potential functional roles and degradation abilities. From these data it was possible to reconstruct almost complete nitrogen and sulfur cycles, as well as autotrophic carbon fixation and mineral transformation processes. Analysis of RNA showed that many of the detected genera in these nutrient cycles were probably active in situ. Thus, CH stonework microbial communities are highly diverse and potentially self‐sustaining ecosystems capable of cycling carbon, nitrogen and sulfur as well as the stone biodeterioration processes that lead to alterations such as exfoliation and corrosion. These results highlight the importance of diversity and internal recycling capacity in the development of microbial communities in harsh and low energy systems.
Highlights
Cultural heritage (CH) objects, including stoneworks, are affected by chemical, physical and biological processes which can modify their structure and composition; bacteria, archaea and fungi cause chemical, mechanical and aesthetic damage to CH stone materials (Sorlini et al, 1987; Zanardini et al, 1997; Warscheid and Braams, 2000; Ranalli et al, 2009; May, 2010)
Investigations of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic community structure based on small subunit rRNA genes showed in some cases a high biodiversity of the these communities, with members of phyla from Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi and from the Archaea linked with alterations such as discolorations, patinas and crusts (McNamara and Mitchell, 2005; Ranalli et al, 2009; Scheerer et al, 2009; May, 2010; Ettenauer et al, 2014; Zanardini et al, 2016)
High throughput sequencing analysis of 16S rRNA gene fragments amplified from DNA extracted from 3 samples of altered stone from Portchester Castle showed highly diverse bacterial communities, with between 108 and 180 bacterial genera detected in the 3 samples analysed (Fig. 1A; Supplementary Table S2)
Summary
Cultural heritage (CH) objects, including stoneworks, are affected by chemical, physical and biological processes which can modify their structure and composition; bacteria, archaea and fungi cause chemical, mechanical and aesthetic damage to CH stone materials (Sorlini et al, 1987; Zanardini et al, 1997; Warscheid and Braams, 2000; Ranalli et al, 2009; May, 2010). A number of OTUs related to putative cavelineages from the gamma-proteobacteria and actinobacterial phyla were detected along with
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