Abstract
Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) yield single-longitudinal-mode operation, low-divergence circular output beam, and low threshold current. This paper gives an overview on theoretical, self-consistent modelling of physical phenomena occurring in a VCSEL. The model has been experimentally confirmed. We present versatile numerical methods for nitride, arsenide, and phosphide VCSELs emitting light at wavelengths varying from violet to near infrared. We also discuss different designs with respect to optical confinement: gain guidance using tunnel junctions and index guidance using oxide confinement or photonic crystal and we focus on the problem of single-transverse-mode operation.
Highlights
There are two distinctly different classes of Fabry-Perot semiconductor diode lasers: edge-emitting lasers (EELs) and vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs)
Because of the details of their structure, Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) have a number of unique features that distinguish them from conventional EELs [1]: inherent single-longitudinal-mode operation, low-divergence nonastigmatic circular output beams, low threshold current at room-temperature (RT) continuous-wave (CW) operation, device geometry suitable for integration into two-dimensional laser arrays, compatibility with vertical-stacking architecture, the ability to be modulated at very high frequencies, and the possibility of in situ testing
EEL cavities are always tuned to their maximal optical gain but those of VCSELs may be intentionally detuned, which gives an additional degree of freedom to the VCSEL design
Summary
There are two distinctly different classes of Fabry-Perot semiconductor diode lasers: edge-emitting lasers (EELs) and vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs). 3D profiles of all model parameters within the whole device volume should be determined in each calculation loop by the various chemical composition of the layers, but by the selfconsistent calculation algorithm which takes into account current 3D profiles of temperature, current density, carrier concentration, mode radiation intensity, and mechanical stresses Reaching such self-consistency is especially important for modelling high-power and/or high-temperature VCSEL operation. Higher-output large-size index guided VCSELs usually exhibit multimode operation, especially at higher temperatures This results from the considerable current-crowding effect near the active-region edges, which—despite the smooth radial carrier diffusion profile in the active region—still favours higher-order transverse modes [5, 8].
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