Novel Insights into Regulation of GPCR Signaling by GRKs and β‐arrestins

Abstract

G protein‐coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling is tightly regulated by GPCR kinases (GRKs) and β‐arrestins 1 & 2 (βarr1/2). Following agonist stimulation, GRKs and βarr1/2 are important for returning cells to their physiological resting states by acting in tandem to promote receptor desensitization by reducing the ability of receptors to couple with G proteins and by targeting active GPCRs for endocytosis. In addition, GRKs and arrestins are also known to instigate non‐canonical signaling by scaffolding and activating various effector molecules. Although these functions of βarr1/2 are generalizable to all GPCRs, they can diverge dependent upon the ligand activating the same GPCR and the dominant function can vary between GPCRs. Although inherent properties of the GPCR likely specify these discrete functions, the determinants remain poorly understood. To address this, we are using the chemokine receptor CXCR5 as a model GPCR. CXCR5, and its endogenous ligand, CXCL13, have been linked to diseases ranging from cancer, chronic inflammation, and cardiovascular disease, among others, and yet very little is known about the regulation of CXCR5 signaling. To investigate this, we used CRISPR/Cas9 gene edited βarr1/2 knockout and matched parental HEK293 cells in bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET), receptor trafficking, and signaling assays. Our data show a dose‐dependent increase in the BRET response following CXCL13 stimulation between βarr1/2‐GFP and CXCR5‐Rluc8, suggesting that βarr1/2 is recruited to activated CXCR5 at the plasma membrane. A selective inhibitor of GRK2/3, but not a non‐selective PKC inhibitor, reduced βarr1/2 recruitment to CXCR5 following CXCL13 stimulation. Mutation of potential phosphorylation sites within the carboxy‐terminus of CXCR5 did not impact CXCL13‐stimulated endocytosis, although βarr1/2 recruitment was impaired. Remarkably, CXCL13‐stimulated CXCR5 endocytosis was not impacted in βarr1/2 knockout HEK293 cells, while CXCL13‐stimulated ERK‐1/2 phosphorylation was reduced compared to parental HEK293 cells. Based on these data we hypothesize that CXCR5 signaling is regulated through a complex process that involves GRKs andβ‐arrestins via conventional and non‐conventional mechanisms.To explore this further, in future experiments we will identify the receptor determinants mediating GRK‐phosphorylation and βarr1/2 recruitment to CXCR5 and their contributions to desensitization, endocytosis, and signaling. Overall, we expect to learn how receptor phosphorylation contributes to the divergent functions of βarr1/2 via CXCR5. This research will help illuminate novel mechanisms governing GPCR regulation by GRKs and arrestins, which may translate into better therapeutics for diseases involving GPCR signaling.