Abstract
Bladder cancer (BC) is the most common type of carcinoma of the urological system. Recently, there has been an increasing interest in non-invasive diagnostic tumor markers due to the invasive attribute of cystoscopy, which is still considered the gold standard diagnostic method. However, markers published in the literature so far do not meet expectations for replacing cystoscopy due to their low specificity and excessively high false-positive results, which can be mainly caused by frequently occurring hematuria also in benign cases. No reliable non-invasive method has yet been identified that can distinguish patients with bladder cancer and non-malignant hematuria patients. Our work examined the possibilities of non-targeted biomarkers of urine to distinguish patients with malignant and non-malignant diseases of the bladder using 3D HPLC in combination with computer processing of multiple datasets. Urine samples from 47 patients, 23 patients with bladder cancer (BC) and 24 patients with non-malignant hematuria (NMHU), were enrolled in clinical trials. For the separation and subsequent analysis of a large number of urine components, 3D HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) with an absorption and fluorescence detector was used. The obtained dataset was further subjected to various uni- and multi-dimensional statistical analyses and mathematical modeling. We found 334 chromatographic peaks, of which 18 peaks were identified as significantly different for BC and NMHU patients. Using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, we assessed the informative ability of significant chromatographic peaks (90% sensitivity and 74% specificity). By logistic regression, we identified the optimal and simplified set of seven chromatographic peaks (5 absorptions plus 2 fluorescence) with strong classification power (100% sensitivity and 100% specificity) for distinguishing patients with bladder cancer and those with non-malignant hematuria. Partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) model and orthogonal projection to latent structure discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) with 100% sensitivity and 96% specificity were used to distinguish BC and NMHU patients. Multivariate statistical analysis of urinary metabolomic profiles of patients revealed that BC patients can be discriminated from NMHU patients and the results can likely contribute to an early and non-invasive diagnosis of BC.
Highlights
Urine samples were collected from male patients with bladder cancer (BC) and male patients with non-malignant hematuria (NMHU)
The partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was used to distinguish patients with BC and NMHU based on urinary metabolites (Figure 3)
8 of patients with BC and NMHU based on urinary metabolites (Figure 3)
Summary
Bladder cancer (BC) is one of the most common genitourinary malignancies. It is the sixth most common cancer in men [1]. BC is detected at a late stage, which represents an unfavorable prognosis for the patient. One reason for delayed diagnosis is the non-specificity of symptoms, such as difficulty with micturition, pain in urination, and blood in urine, which may be accompanied by different diseases unrelated to malignant tumors. Cystoscopy and cytology are the gold standard methods for BC detection. Cystoscopy is considered an invasive and painful examination of BC [2]. This examination method often represents a physical burden on the patient [3]
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