Multiband fractal antenna for 5G communications and IoT applications

Both 5G cellular and IoT technologies are expected to see widespread deployment in the next few years. At the practical level, 5G will see initial deployments in urban areas. This is perhaps fortuitous from an IoT perspective, since many “mainstream” applications of IoT will support Smart Cities, Smart Campuses and Smart Buildings. Bandwidth demand for a number of Smart City applications is the main driver for enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB)-based 5G services in general, and new-generation 5G IoT applications, in particular. In turn, the use of the millimeter wave spectrum is required to enable 5G cellular technologies to support high data rates. Millimeter wave solutions, however, impose a requirement for small cells. Generally, an implementer tries to use one or a small handful of IoT technologies; preferably, and for managerial simplicity, the implementer would want to use a cellular/5G IoT technology for all nodes, whether indoors or outdoors, instead of a heterogenous mix of various IoT technologies that have evolved over the years. This overview paper discusses a number of practical issues related to 5G-based IoT applications, particularly in Smart City environments, including the need for small cells, the transmission issues at millimeter wave frequencies, building penetration issues, the need for Distributed Antenna Systems, and the near term introduction of pre-5G IoT technologies such as NB-IoT and LTE-M, these being possible proxies for the commercial deployment and acceptance of 5G IoT.

A new array of patch antenna is proposed in this paper for upcoming 5G networks and IoT applications. The operating frequencies are optimized at 4 different bands ranging from 30 GHz to 50 GHz. Such design is suitable for 5G communication applications for Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) systems. The proposed antenna has a simple structure and it consists of two patches separated by a distance which can be optimized for required different types of parametric combinations. A single point feed is divided by using the Wilkinson’s power divider model to split or combine the power transmitted to or the power received from two patch elements respectively. The designed array has shown comparatively high performance and better directional radiation patterns. The four operating frequencies are observed at 31.0 GHz, 36.4 GHz, 43.4 GHz and 48.5 GHz with simulated return losses observed with approximate values at −44.9 dB, −33.4 dB, −29.2 dB and −23.9 dB respectively. The simulated results show that the efficiency varies from 18% to 23%. The VSWR is very close to unity indicating a good performance of the antenna array. The performance is encouraging and the array antenna is suitable for the applications in upcoming 5G network communication and other IoT applications.

The Fifth Generation Communication System (5G) has revolutionized data (voice, text, and hybrid) transmission and communication. Advanced communication protocol and sophisticated technology open up the opportunity to integrate 5G with other state-of-the-art technologies. Similarly, the Internet of Things combines sensors, actuators, and other devices that network together to collect contextual and environmental data for application-specific purposes. Nowadays, the applications of IoT need a fast data transfer to ensure smooth service. 5G has the potential to achieve this function for IoT. However, the energy-efficient architecture and easy-to-manage 5G-enabled IoT are still developing. Hence, the potential vulnerability issues of 5G-enabled IoT architecture need to be studied. In this paper, firstly, we have comprehensively discussed the fundamental architecture and characteristics of the 5G ecosystem. Later, the paper comprehensively outlined the characteristics and layered architecture of the internet of things. Then, this chapter also explores the requirements of 5G-enabled IoT, Blockchain-based 5G IoT, and 5G with artificial intelligence. Followed by this discussion, the chapter investigates the opportunities of 5G IoT in different domains. Finally, this paper investigates and analyzes the research gaps, challenges, and probable solutions comprehensively in a tabular format.

Device to device communication is the predominantly renowned trait for the 5G network and IoT applications. In the work, proposed novel joint low power/energy efficient resource allocation with mode selection for the D2D communication underlay in-band with transmit power, interference, data rate constraints are investigated with formulation of a novel problem which integrates the three major modules (resource management, mode selection, and power management) of D2D communication into one. To achieve the low power/energy efficient resource allocation with mode selection, we formulate novel optimization problem with objective of maximizing the energy efficiency using the subtractive form method to solve fractional objective function and form an iterative algorithm. The formulated fractional optimization problem is transformed into min–max problem and solved by the Lagrange dual function with low transmit power, interference, data rate constraints as a lagrange multipliers via an iterative process to achieve the optimal low power. Numerical analysis exemplifies and validates the optimal low power and the energy efficient characteristics of the novel proposed algorithm with all constraints to ensure the quality of the communication for the D2D communication, 5G, and IoT applications with the industrial need of low power/energy efficient devices to promote the conservation of energy and green communication.

The object of the study is a compact heptagonal broadband antenna specially designed for use in the 5G millimeter band using Koch fractals to improve performance. As a result of the study, the most important problem of achieving higher gain, improving bandwidth and reducing interference at higher frequencies, which is necessary for the effective functioning of 5G networks, was solved. As a result, the maximum realized gain of 5 dB was obtained at a frequency of 27.58 GHz with an impressive bandwidth in the range from 26.5 to 40 GHz. The use of Koch fractal geometry and defective ground planes significantly improves impedance matching and expands bandwidth, which explains the excellent antenna performance compared to traditional designs. The features and distinguishing features of the results obtained, thanks to which they allowed solving the problem under study, are its compact dimensions (only 9 mm by 9 mm) and the ability to maintain VSWR at a level of less than 2 in the entire frequency spectrum. These features make the antenna particularly suitable for millimeter-band integration and flexible applications such as portable devices and wearable home appliances. The field of practical application of the results includes integration into portable and wearable devices, improving the performance and connectivity of Internet of Things applications. The conditions of practical use require compliance with 5G network standards and compatibility with millimeter-wave technologies. This characterizes the antenna as a significant achievement in antenna technology, demonstrating its potential for widespread adoption in next-generation wireless communication systems and paving the way for more reliable and high-performance wireless networks

RETRACTED: Industrial structure technology upgrade based on 5G network service and IoT intelligent manufacturing

• Compact Design: A super-wideband (SWB) Hilbert Slot Antenna (HSA) measuring only 7.31 × 7.31 mm², fabricated on semi-flexible Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 substrate. • Wide Coverage: Operates across 24.71–63.81 GHz, covering all 5G FR2 bands (n257–n263). • High Performance: Achieves 39.1 GHz bandwidth and peak gain of 7.22 dBi with radiation efficiency up to 90.88%. • Design Optimization: Extensive parametric studies improved impedance matching, bandwidth, and gain without increasing size. • Wearable Suitability: Stable performance under bending and near-body operation (arm, shoulder, chest) with only minor matching degradation and increased bandwidth. • Safety Compliance: SAR values within FCC and EU limits, ensuring safe use in wearable devices. • Experimental Validation: Measurements closely match simulations for S11, gain, efficiency, and radiation patterns. • Application Potential: Suitable for compact 5G wearable and IoT devices; future work aims at MIMO integration and fully flexible substrates. This work presents the design, fabrication, and measurement of a compact, super-wideband (SWB) 5G mmWave Hilbert Slot Antenna (HSA) that includes all Frequency Range 2 (FR2) bands (n257-n263). The antenna is fabricated on a semi-flexible Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 substrate, known for its low losses at high frequencies (Ɛ r = 2.2, h = 0.508 mm, tan(σ) = 0.004). Despite its small size of 7.31 × 7.31 mm ² , the proposed antenna achieves an impressive measured super-wide bandwidth of 39.1 GHz, with a peak gain of 7.22 dBi. The design evolution of the HSA is thoroughly explored, focusing on the effects of iteration, segment count, and feed point location on antenna performance. Parametric studies reveal the antenna's optimized configuration, showcasing significant bandwidth improvements and a reduced size compared to other designs. The antenna's suitability for wearable, body-centric applications is discussed, with an emphasis on mechanical modifications and its performance near the human body. Additionally, the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) values are evaluated and found to be within the safety limits, ensuring the antenna's compliance with electromagnetic radiation exposure standards. The proposed antenna design has a wide bandwidth, compact size, and optimal performance, outperforming other fractal designs with a simpler geometry and fewer iterations, making it an excellent candidate for 5G communication systems and wearable devices.

Medium access control protocols play an important role for allocating the medium to the smart devices connected on the networks. These networks include IoT and sensor networks, IoT and 5G networks, IoT and optical networks using 5G communication etc. MAC protocols ensure the efficient and fair communication through these networks from devices to base station. Wireless sensor networks are considered as the back bone for the internet controlled applications. These networks set up link between virtual and real world. The selection of the suitable MAC protocol can help in improving the network life time so the data collected by the nodes is delivered to its destination. So this paper explores the various MAC protocols available for IoT and 5G applications and .The parameters of study for these MAC protocols used for the real time applications includes residual energy, throughput, packet delivery ratio, latency and network lifetime. The paper also explores the usages of machine learning and AI used in MAC protocols for these high speed IoT networks. The work addresses the improvement of network lifetime and residual energy by applying Fuzzy approach for the selection of cluster head . The energy consumption increases if the clusters are not balanced in terms of the nodes so we have used the grid formation of the clusters. We used the Fuzzy Logic Inference system (FIS) in the cluster formation technique. The probabilistic method for election of cluster head does not consider the parameters such as residual energy, node position and base station distance. This result in the improper selection of the cluster head .The use of multiple parameters in the FIS improves the network lifetime and residual energy as compared to the classical LEACH protocol. Fuzzy logic approach solves the uncertainties occurring in the system especially when it is handling the larger amount of data. The fuzzy approach shows the prolonged network lifetime in terms of first node die and the Last node Die. We have also used the statistical regression approach to calculate the residual energy and network life time in terms of alive nodes. Finally this chapter ends with the discussion of challenges and future scope of the MAC protocols used for the real time applications. The work is important as it gives opportunity for the research areas in high speed IoT and 5G networks for using AI and ML intelligent to develop QoS MAC protocols.

OFDM systems have high spectral efficiency because of overlapping spectra of subcarriers and may be used in 5G NR techniques, IoT applications and many more. A cyclic prefix (CP) greater than the maximum length of channel delay spread is appended in OFDM symbol to avoid intersymbol interference (ISI). These signals can be easily demodulated with the help of a simple one-tap equalizer. However, one of the major disadvantages of OFDM system is the sensitivity to carrier frequency offset (CFO) error, which breaks the orthogonality among subcarriers and results in intercarrier interference (ICI), degrading the system performance severely. In this chapter, we study the effect of using phase rotation or compensation with data repetition-based ICI cancellation schemes. This study focuses on the ICI cancellation scheme and its effect on OFDM communication system in AWGN and fading channels, assuming that the synchronization, including phase, frequency and timing has been done by using repeated preamble sequence, but the ICI may still exist due to frequency offset estimation error or unexpected Doppler velocity. It is observed that the improvement obtained in the performance of the ICI cancellation scheme is same, when the information of frequency offset required for phase rotation or compensation is used either at the transmitter or at the receiver.

A Compact Printed MIMO Antenna with L-Shaped Defected Ground Structure (DGS) for 5G Mid-Band, Wi-Fi 6/7, and IoT Applications

This study introduces innovative designs for frequency-reconfigurable antennas that utilize ring resonators combined with either PIN diodes or RF switches. These designs enhance the versatility, adaptability, and overall performance of the antennas in wireless communication systems. By controlling the switches and ring resonator, the antenna’s resonant frequencies and bandwidths can be adjusted, allowing for compatibility with various communication standards and frequency ranges. The proposed antenna exhibits four distinct operational states, each characterized by different resonance frequencies and operating frequency bands. Return loss, radiation pattern, radiation efficiency, and surface current distribution are analyzed for each state. State-1 (ON-ON) and State-2 (OFF-ON), which are characterized by resonance frequencies of 2.4 GHz and 3.33 GHz respectively, offer ranges suitable for Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ISM, and IoT applications. State-3 (ON-OFF), with a resonance frequency of 3.0 GHz and bandwidth spanning from 2.59 GHz to 3.643 GHz, complies with Wi-Fi, Wi-Fi 6, and IoT requirements. State-4 (OFF-OFF) covers the band centered around 3.45 GHz. It is compatible with many applications such as 5G mid-band, Wi-Fi 6E, IoT, and cellular systems. The proposed antenna designs are versatile and compact since the overall antenna dimensions are 25 × 18 × 1.6 mm3. The radiation efficiency of the antenna configuration varies depending on operational states. By utilizing the advantages of both ring resonators and RF switches, the proposed antenna configurations offer new solutions that enhance their performance in wireless communication systems. This study compares the effects of using PIN diodes and SPDT switches on the performance of antennas and also examines the DC biasing effect on antenna characteristics. The simulation results are validated by the experimental analysis. The proposed antenna designs offer a new approach for wireless communication systems by using both ring resonators and RF switches.

The present article proposes a penta band Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) antenna for 5G New Radio (NR) bands and HIPERLAN applications using Characteristic Mode Analysis (CMA). The design is obtained and optimised in step-by-step procedure using novel CMA approach and by perturbing the conventional rectangular structure with slots on the patch (left and right sides) and the ground plane (wide slot + narrow slots) for enhancing the isolation at multi bands. The MIMO configuration has a total dimension of 0.58 l0 × 0.35 l0 × 0.01 l0 mm3 with an optimum element separation of 0.05 l0 (l0 is the lowest frequency operating wavelength). Multiband resonance is produced at 2.2, 4.2, 7.2, 16, 17.5 GHz. The radiating elements can excite various characteristic modes that support wider bandwidth. The -10 dB impedance bandwidth at working region are 0.2, 0.2, 0.38, 3.6, 2 GHz respectively. The suggested design yields a gain of 2.1, 5.7, 3.5, 3.5, 5.2 dBi and consistent radiation patterns at the working frequencies. The analysis of the diversity performance considers the Diversity Gain (DG) and Envelope Correlation Coefficient (ECC), whose values are near 9.9 dB and 0, respectively. Additionally, the assessed parameters are the CCL and TARC. The structure prototype has been developed, and the observed findings are highly coherent with the simulated results, making it appropriate for use in 5G NR bands, HIPERLAN, and IoT applications.

Relaying technologies have been actively studied in mobile broadband communication systems, and were considered in the most recent standard releases of the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), including “Long Term Evolution Advanced” (LTE-A) networks. This chapter provides an in-depth review of the relay technology that is being considered for future 5G networks. The article first introduces and compares different relay types that use LTE-A standards, and presents the relay benefits in terms of performance and operational costs. It then highlights future relay deployment strategies that have been discussed by the 3GPP, which supports multi-hopping, mobility, and heterogeneity. In addition, it also proposes efficient deployment strategies, along with their impact on network performance. Finally, the chapter explains a few of the associated challenges that lie ahead for relay application, and provides a video streaming application.

Edge data centers are expected to become prevalent providing low latency computing power for 5G mobile and IoT applications. This article develops two models for the complete cooling system of an edge data center: one model based on the laws of thermodynamics and one data-driven model based on LSTM neural networks. The models are validated against an actual edge data center experimental set-up showing root mean squared errors (RMSE) for most individual components below 1 °C over a simulation period of approximately 10 hours; which compares favourably to state-of-the-art models.

Emerging applications with low-latency requirements such as real-time analytics, immersive media applications, and intelligent virtual assistants have rendered Edge Computing as a critical computing infrastructure. Existing studies have explored the cloudlet placement problem in a homogeneous scenario with different goals such as latency minimization, load balancing, energy efficiency, and placement cost minimization. However, placing cloudlets in a highly heterogeneous deployment scenario considering the next-generation 5G networks and IoT applications is still an open challenge. The novel requirements of these applications indicate that there is still a gap in ensuring low-latency service guarantees when deploying cloudlets. Furthermore, deploying cloudlets in a cost-effective manner and ensuring full coverage for all users in edge computing are other critical conflicting issues. In this article, we address these issues by designing a bifactor approximation algorithm to solve the heterogeneous cloudlet placement problem to guarantee a bounded latency and placement cost, while fully mapping user applications to appropriate cloudlets. We first formulate the problem as a multi-objective integer programming model and show that it is a computationally NP-hard problem. We then propose a bifactor approximation algorithm, ACP, to tackle its intractability. We investigate the effectiveness of ACP by performing extensive theoretical analysis and experiments on multiple deployment scenarios based on New York City OpenData. We prove that ACP provides a (2,4)-approximation ratio for the latency and the placement cost. The experimental results show that ACP obtains near-optimal results in a polynomial running time making it suitable for both short-term and long-term cloudlet placement in heterogeneous deployment scenarios.