Abstract
Opioids have been utilized for both medical and recreational purposes since their discovery. Primarily recognized for their analgesic properties, they are also associated with the development of tolerance and dependence, contributing to a significant public health concern worldwide. Sex differences in opioid use disorder reveal that while men historically exhibit higher rates of abuse, women may develop dependence more quickly and are more susceptible to the addictive nature of opioids. This narrative review explores sex differences in opioid response in both clinical and experimental models, focusing on opioid receptor mechanisms, pain modulation, and hormonal influences. Additionally, it discusses the complexities of opioid addiction and withdrawal, highlighting sex-specific responses and the role of opioid replacement therapies. Diverse experimental outcomes, together with observational data, underscore the need for further research into sex-specific opioid biological mechanisms in a wider context, including demographic, cultural, and health-related factors. A comprehensive understanding of these complexities holds the potential to enhance personalized opioid therapies.
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