Molecular markers in sustainable management, conservation, and restoration of forest genetic resources

Conservation of forest biological diversity, which includes forest genetic resources, is essential for sustaining the productive value of forests, and for maintaining the health and vitality of forest ecosystems and thereby maintaining their protective, environmental and cultural roles. The purpose of conserving of forest genetic resources is to maintain hereditary variation in species and local populations far into the future so that their viability and adaptability would be sufficient to cope with changing environmental conditions. Since forest genetic resources are essential part of the adaptation processes of populations and tree species in a changing environment, their conservation and appropriate management have a crucial importance for sustainable forest management. Thus, forests need to be managed in a way that ensures their sustainable utilization, safeguarding the ecological process and genetic diversity essential for the maintenance of the resource base. In this paper a general introduction is given to the state of forest genetic resources conservation in FYR Macedonia with comprehensive overview of policies with respect to their conservation and management. Based on the current situation of conservation of forest genetic resources, some strategic suggestions concerning the future development of genetic conservation is given, taking into consideration the conservation objectives and future trends of great impact on existing forest genetic resources. National policies and regulatory frameworks that target forest genetic resources in Macedonia are partial and inadequate. Most relevant policies neglect the importance of forest genetic resources, but rather use it in the context of biological diversity. Sound social and economic policies are needed at national level to ensure the integration of forest genetic resources into wider national forest policy frameworks and thereby promote the sustainable management of forest genetic resources.

The management of forest trees has long been a critical challenge in the field of forestry, as these essential natural resources face numerous threats, from climate change and pests to deforestation and unsustainable harvesting practices. Maintaining the resilience and adaptability of forest ecosystems to global changes has become a crucial challenge for forest management. The application of genetic tools can play a pivotal role in enhancing the adaptive capacity of forest tree species and ensuring their long-term sustainability. The study aims to investigate the application of genetic tools for the management of forest genetic resources. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the application of genetic tools to address these challenges and enhance the resilience and sustainability of forest ecosystems. One of the key strategies in this regard is the use of genetic data to inform forest management decisions. Powerful forward-genetic techniques, such as DNA/RNA sequencing technologies, marker-based trait selection, quantitative trait locus mapping, genome-wide association studies, and nested association mapping, have been instrumental in pinpointing the genomic regions and underlying causative mutations responsible for traits like yield, stress resistance, and metabolic profiles. The analysis of genetic markers can help identify trees with desirable traits, such as resistance to pests or adaptations to changing climatic conditions. This information can then be used to selectively breed or propagate these high-performing individuals, thereby enhancing the overall genetic diversity and resilience of the forest. Furthermore, genetic tools can also be leveraged to monitor and respond to emerging threats, such as the spread of invasive species or the onset of disease outbreaks. By tracking the genetic profiles of these pests and pathogens, forest managers can develop early warning systems and deploy targeted management strategies to mitigate their impact. As the challenges facing forest ecosystems continue to grow, the application of genetic tools presents a promising approach to enhance the long-term sustainability and resilience of these vital natural resources. In this review, we have highlighted the application of genetic tools in the management of forest genetic resources. The application of genetic tools in forest management has the potential to significantly enhance the resilience and adaptability of forest ecosystems to the challenges posed by global change. By providing insights into the genetic diversity, adaptation mechanisms, and ecosystem function of forests, these tools can enable forest managers to make more informed decisions and develop strategies that balance the various objectives of forest management.

The genetic information about forest trees is not only of crucial importance for the yield of forestry production systems,but also for determining the evolutionary adaptive potential of tree populations. Thus, the stability of forest ecosystems depends on the sustainable management of forest genetic resources. In this context, tree breeding and conservation of forest genetic resources are mentioned as main applications of research in forest genetics. Genetic inventories are conducted in order to observe the spatial distribution of genetic information at gene marker loci. Such studies allow us to elucidate the evolutionary history of populations and, thus, to draw conclusions about their evolutionary adaptability. Results of a genetic inventory of oak (Quercus spp.) populations native to Switzerland are presented, and their significance for the characterization of genetic systems and adaptive potential is discussed. Future research into forest genetics should aim at improving our understanding of the relationship between variation at biochemical and molecular marker loci and adaptive processes in forest tree populations. The temporal dynamics of genetic structures of forest tree populations as a consequence of anthropogenic environmental change is another important topic of forest genetics in particular for the conservation of rare species.

The institutional design of forest certification standards initiatives and its influence on the role of science: the case of forest genetic resources

En el campo de la genética, es necesario conocer las causas y efectos de la variación en los rasgos que influyen en las características de los individuos en sus hábitats naturales. El objetivo de esta tesis es investigar la variación fenotípica entre la población natural de pinos a escala local y regional, y definir sus implicaciones en el uso y conservación de los recursos genéticos. En el primer paso, analizamos la relación entre la varianza dentro de la población en rasgos fenotípicos relacionados con su eficacia biológica, la plasticidad fenotípica de estos rasgos y la heterogeneidad ambiental. En segundo lugar, evaluamos la variación genética inter e intraespecífica en la tolerancia a la sequía de plántulas. En tercer lugar, identificamos áreas para la conservación genética y propusimos medidas para la conservación y uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos forestales de pinos.

Sub-Saharan Africa is endowed with indigenous knowledge systems and natural forest resources critical to supporting several forms of development. However, the region has experienced rapid population growth and demographic changes, which may lead to a decline in forest resources. Sustainable management of these resources is critical for a healthy forest ecosystem that should continue to provide goods and services to the present and future generations. Of the variety of management strategies employed in the sustainable management of forest resources, indigenous knowledge provides a plausible alternative. To ascertain the relevance of this knowledge, the Lugbara community in Yumbe district, northwestern Uganda, was considered. Data were collected from 371 respondents using questionnaires and 19 key informants using interviews; others included participatory GIS and remote sensing. Data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics, thematic and content analysis, and a forest cover change matrix. The results indicated a highly significant correlation between IK availability and usefulness of 0.703 at 0.01 level, and the socioeconomic and demographic variables tested statistically significant with sub-county of origin alone accounting for 11.7% of the variations in utilisation of IK in forest management. Indigenous knowledge was mostly used in the management of community forest resources, while modern scientific approaches were used in managing public forests. The forest resources were not sustainably managed despite the relatively high prevalence of IK. The linear model summary results were marginally significant, indicating that the prevalence of IK accounted for only approximately six% (R2 = .059) of the variations in SMFR. However, there was a resurrected interest in the use of IK since some forests managed using strict customary laws were the most biologically diverse. The resurrected interest implies that the IK remains relevant in the 21st century. The study therefore, recommends that IK practises be documented, promoted, and integrated into modern formal approaches to achieve SMFR

Contributors. Part 1: Verification of Response to Stress. Stress responses in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Cloning and characterisation of an ozone-inducible pinysylvin methyltransferase H. Chiron, et al. Screening of Sitka spruce genotypes for resistances to the White Pine Weevil in British Columbia J.N. King, R.I. Alfaro. Genetic variation in two heavily polluted stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L Karst.) as indicated by nuclear and organelle DNA markers R. Riegel, et al. Effects of extreme SO2-air pollution in winter 1995/96 on vitality and growth of SO2-tolerant Norway spruce (Picea abies [L. Karst.) clones in the Ore mountains H. Wolf. Variation in adaptation and growth as indicated by provenance trial Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco X. Shen, X. Chen. Influence of nursery environment and pollution on alders L. Mejnartowicz. Part 2: Genetic Variation under Diverse Environmental Conditions. Small scale spatial genetic structure of six tropical tree species in French Guiana B. Degen, et al. Genetic variation in natural populations of Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Kuntze in Brazil V.A. Sousa, H.H. Hattemer. Microsatellite DNA markers and their usefulness in poplars, and conservation of microsatellite DNA loci in Salicaceae O.P. Rajora, M.H. Rahman. PCR-RFLP analysis of introns of nuclear genes in Populus and Prunus B. Heinze. Genetic types in white oak populations north of the Alps and in the Danube valley U.M. Csaikl, A.O. Konig. Highly polymorphic uniparentally inherited DNA markers for spatial genetic analysis of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) populations B. Ziegenhagen, et al. Levels of genetic differentiation inPinus halepensis Mill. in Spain using quantitative traits, isozymes, RAPDs and cp-microsatellites R. Alia, et al. Geographical variation of gene diversity of Pinus pinaster Ait. in the Iberian Peninsula S.C. Gonzalez-Martinez, et al. Is autochthony an operational concept? F.N. Schoppa, H.-R. Gregorius. Part 3: Genetic Resources, Reproduction, Management. Molecular markers in sustainable management, conservation, and restoration of forest genetic resources O.P. Rajora, A. Mosseler. Sustainable treatment of resources: The genetic basis H.-R. Gregorius. Genetic diversity and differentiation of individual effective pollen clouds in trees H.H. Hattemer, et al. Microsatellite analysis of small anonymous seedlot samples from pedunculate oak (Quercus robur): a promising approach to monitor the number of different seed parents and pollen donors C. Lexer, et al. Fructification and genetic structures of Fagus sylvatica mixed stands in upper regions of the Harz mountains D. Krabel, et al. Dispersal of seed and effective pollen in small stands of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) K. Wang, H.H. Hattemer. Patterns of seed dispersal in a scattered forest tree species (Sorbus torminalis) based on multi-scale investigation of population genetic structure for chloroplast DNA S. Oddou-Muratorio, et al. Gene flow and mating system in a seedling seed orchard and a natural stand of Pinus merkusii Jungh. et de Vriese in Indonesia I.Z. Siregar, H.H. Hattemer. The pattern of genetic variation in Pinus nigra subspecies pallasiana natural populations from the Kazdag and Bolkar mountains, Turkey: Implications for in situ gene conservation Z. Kaya, et al. Genetic

Increased use of forest resources and a shrinking forestland base threaten the sustainability of forest genetic resources and highlight the importance of conservation and sustainable management of these resources. As forest trees are normally the keystone species of forest ecosystems, their continued existence is essential for many floral and faunal associations of these ecosystems. Major concepts, challenges and opportunities for conservation of forest genetic resources are briefly discussed in this paper. The major challenges include population decline and population structure changes due to forest removal and conversion of forest land to other uses,forest fragmentation, forestry practices, climate change, disease conditions,introduced pests, atmospheric pollution, and introgressive hybridization. Developing scientifically sound conservation strategies, maintaining minimum viable population sizes, and deployment of genetically engineered organisms represent other important challenges in conservation. The usefulness of various biochemical and molecular genetic markers, adaptive traits, and genetic diversity measures for developing conservation strategies for in situ and ex situ genetic resource conservation are also discussed. Major opportunities for conservation of forest genetic resources include: use of molecular genetic markers and adaptive traits for developing conservation strategies; in situ conservation through natural reserves,protected areas, and sustainable forest management practices; ex situ conservation through germplasm banks, common garden archives, seed banks, DNA banks, and tissue culture and cryopreservation; incorporation of disease, pest, and stress tolerance traits through genetic transformation;plantation forestry; and ecological restoration of rare or declining tree species and populations. Forest genetic resource conservation and resource use should be considered complementary rather than contradictory to each other.

Numerous studies examining gender roles in sustainable management of forest resources (SMFR) have shown that women's engagement adds a new dimension to the equation. However, their effective participation is still low, largely due to gendered subordination. To ascertain women’s potential in sustainable forest management in Yumbe district, this study examined the conventional roles of both genders. Random sampling techniques were used to select 371 general respondents (51% female) from 15,346 households, while purposive sampling was used to select 19 key informants and 4 focus group discussants. The findings revealed that different genders played different roles in forest management. Despite being the poorest, least educated, most involved in agriculture, and having limited access to and control over forest resources, women were the most concerned about the declining state of forest resources in the area. They are more effective in implementing programmes geared towards sustainable management of forest resources. Lessons learned from the study indicate that, despite being marginalised, women continued to play an important role in the management of forest resources. The study therefore recommends that gender-inclusive approaches be embraced to achieve sustainable management of forest resources. The approaches should ensure equal participation between both genders in order to disentangle some participatory challenges caused by gendered subordination. Key words: Gender, forest resources, sustainable forest management, indigenous knowledge, women’s role in forest management, social well-being.

Genetic effects of forest management practices: Global synthesis and perspectives

Tropical agro-forest landscapes are potentially valuable reserves of forest genetic resources for forestry and restoration of degraded forests. The Dipterocarpaceae is a dominant Southeast Asian family of tree species of global significance for the tropical timber industry. Very little information exists about how effective human modified landscapes are for conserving genetic diversity in dipterocarp species. This study provides a baseline for understanding how fragmented agro-forest landscapes in India sustain forest genetic resources in an endemic dipterocarp tree. We compare genetic diversity and fine-scale spatial genetic structure (FSGS) in the threatened tree species Vateria indica within an isolated and a continuous forest site in the Western Ghats, South India. We place these results in the context of dipterocarps from both the Seychelles and Borneo. Parentage analysis of 694 progeny using twelve nuclear microsatellite markers is applied to estimate pollen and seed dispersal. Using a nursery trial we evaluate effects of inbreeding on growth performance. Our results show that levels of FSGS, and gene dispersal are comparable between a small isolated and a large continuous site of V. indica. Realized long-distance pollen flow into the isolated patch appears to help maintaining genetic diversity. The nursery experiment suggests that selection favours outbred progeny. Individuals of V. indica in close proximity appear less related to each other than in another highly fragmented and endangered dipterocarp species from the Seychelles, but more related than in three dipterocarp species studied in continuous forest in Borneo. We discuss the wider implications of our findings in the context of conservation and restoration of dipterocarp forest genetic resources in fragmented populations.

The introduction of mal-adapted genotype is a major concern in conservation and management of forest genetic resources. This is risky because it potentially threatens the integrity of the natural genetic structure of populations. Therefore, it is necessary to provide guidance on the choice of appropriate germplasm and determine how far it can be moved from its native environment. The most basic guidelines for germplasm movement involve the use of Regions of Provenance (RoP). The RoP for a forest species or sub-species is the area or group of areas subject to sufficiently uniform ecological conditions in which stands or seed sources showing similar phenotypic or genetic characters are found, taking into account altitudinal boundaries where appropriate. However, there is little information concerning Regions of Provenance and limited knowledge about safe limits to the movement of seed, cuttings and planting stock in Morocco. This paper establishes a conceptual framework based on Regions of Provenance that is designed to better understand, protect and use forest genetic resources in Morocco, especially the species for which no specific knowledge on local adaptation or no data about population differentiation are currently available. This is the first study that represents a precise map of Regions of Provenance for Moroccan forest reproductive material and that provides detailed description on topographical, environmental and forest characteristics that characterize each Region of Provenance, by using geographical information system (GIS) techniques. A biogeography-based approach was applied and revealed that the territory was hierarchically organized into 2 Biogeographic Divisions, 9 Biogeographic Units and 19 Regions of Provenance. The RoP proposed are intended as a practical provenance decision-making tool to guide the movement of forest reproductive material in Morocco. This ensures the traceability of planting stock throughout the harvesting-seedling production-plantation process to a specified Forest Basic Material.

The purpose of the study was to carry out a comprehensive analysis of the legislative framework in the field of forest resource management in Albania in the context of forest ecology, and species diversity, and to identify the main problems and prospects for sustainable development of the country’s forestry. The research methodology included the analysis of statistical data from the National Institute of Statistics of Albania on the structure of forest ecosystems and forms of their management. The results of studies conducted by international organizations such as the World Bank, Global Environment Facility, and Oikon d.o.o. were also used. The structure and composition of Albania’s forest resources, including those of natural and semi-natural origin, are analysed. The legal framework in the field of forest management in Albania is summarized. Different management structures for forestry land are characterized, with the identification of the specifics of use for different forms of ownership. The main problems of forest management are identified, including intensive exploitation of private forests, lack of subsidies and investments, as well as imperfect legislative regulation. Adaptation measures to increase the sustainability of Albania’s forests within the framework of the Albanian Forest Policy Document for the period 2019-2030 are substantiated. Strategic areas of development, such as the expansion of protected areas, the development of ecotourism and the attraction of green investments, are proposed. The study also emphasizes the importance of international cooperation for financial and technical support, which will facilitate the implementation of sustainable forest management practices and biodiversity conservation. The practical significance of the study is that these results can be used to develop strategic directions for the development of the forest sector in Albania, aimed at ensuring sustainable management and conservation of forest resources, which is a key factor for the country’s economic and environmental well-being

The article analyzes and summarizes information on breeding and seed production of the main forest-forming and commercial species for the countries of Northern Europe and Russia: Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst). It is shown that in the last 40–50 years Sweden and Finland have completed the first (primary) cycle of plus-tree breeding, and the second cycle is being actively pursued. In terms of seed production, this means a gradual replacement of the 1st generation forest seed orchards with the forest seed orchards of enhanced genetic value (of 1.5 and 2nd generation). By the middle of the 21st century, the productivity of new artificial stands is expected to increase by 20–25 % in terms of stem wood stock due to breeding work. Successful and quite large-scale works were undertaken in plus trees phenotypic breeding and forest seed orchards (1st generation) planting in some regions of European Russia in the last third of the 20th century. However, even this first (primary) cycle of plus-tree breeding has not been fully completed. The latter makes it possible to lay out the necessary areas of multiplicative populations of increased genetic value – forest seed orchards of the 1.5 generation. Although this is impossible to achieve in many subjects of the Northwestern Federal District due to the insufficient number of selected plus trees and, most importantly, the extremely small area of progeny tests. At present, the vast majority of initially selected plus trees were not genetically tested, which hinders the possibility of further development of the plus-tree breeding system. Russia also lacks special breeding zoning of the main forest-forming species, providing a spatial organization of breeding work and the use of seeds from forest seed orchards. A federal program for the preservation and sustainable management of forest genetic resources of the Russian Federation, together with a number of subprograms for genetic research and breeding of the most important forest-forming species, should be developed to achieve progress in this direction, considering current advances in molecular genetics and biotechnology. Acknowledgments: Financial support of the research was provided by the federal budget for the state assignment of the Forest Research Institute and the Department of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research of Karelian Research Centre, Russian Academy of Sciences with partial support of the World-class Scientific and Educational Center “Russian Arctic: New Materials, Technologies and research Methods”. For citation: Raevsky B.V., Ignatenko R.V., Novichonok E.V., Prokopiuk V.M., Kuklina K.K. The Current State of Conifer Species Breeding and Seed Production. Lesnoy Zhurnal = Russian Forestry Journal, 2022, no. 6, pp. 9–37. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.37482/0536-1036-2022-6-9-37

Understanding local patterns of genetic diversity in dipterocarps using a multi-site, multi-species approach: Implications for forest management and restoration