Abstract
Bones are mineralized connective tissues composed of osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and osteocytes. While bone is one of the few tissues that can regenerate in adulthood, its regeneration is limited in the case of large bone defects due to an environment that is detrimental to bone formation, which can be caused by soft tissue injury and impeded vascularization, ultimately reducing the potential for significant bone creation. Consequently, recent research has focused on tissue engineering and regenerative medicine to address these complex issues. This article reviews recent major advances in the cell components used for bone regeneration studies, specific markers of bone differentiation, 3-dimensional (3D) printing techniques for the structural mimicry of bones, and the use of natural and synthetic biomaterials. Functional bone structures and bone organoids can be created using 3D printing, which allows the reconstruction of bone tissue by attaching living cells to scaffolds. These scaffolds are designed with appropriate shapes and mechanical properties to mimic the bone microenvironment. The application of 3D printing in the development of bone organoids holds promise for providing improved solutions for the development of test systems for disease modeling and drug development.
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