Abstract
Ochre is a common feature at Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites and has often been interpreted as a proxy for the origin of modern behaviour. However, few ochre processing tools, ochre containers, and ochre-stained artefacts from MSA contexts have been studied in detail within a theoretical framework aimed at inferring the technical steps involved in the acquisition, production and use of these artefacts. Here we analyse 21 ochre processing tools, i.e. upper and lower grindstones, and two ochre-stained artefacts from the MSA layers of Porc-Epic Cave, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, dated to ca. 40 cal kyr BP. These tools, and a large proportion of the 4213 ochre fragments found at the site, were concentrated in an area devoted to ochre processing. Lower grindstones are made of a variety of raw materials, some of which are not locally available. Traces of use indicate that different techniques were employed to process ochre. Optical microscopy, XRD, μ-Raman spectroscopy, and SEM-EDS analyses of residues preserved on worn areas of artefacts show that different types of ferruginous rocks were processed in order to produce ochre powder of different coarseness and shades. A round stone bearing no traces of having been used to process ochre is half covered with residues as if it had been dipped in a liquid ochered medium to paint the object or to use it as a stamp to apply pigment to a soft material. We argue that the ochre reduction sequences identified at Porc-Epic Cave reflect a high degree of behavioural complexity, and represent ochre use, which was probably devoted to a variety of functions.
Highlights
In order to gain a better understanding of ochre processing and use in the East African Middle Stone Age (MSA), and to evaluate the degree of behavioural complexity reflected by these activities, we present the first detailed analyses of ochre processing tools (OPT), namely upper and lower grindstones, and ochre-stained artefacts (OSA), consisting of stained pebbles and cobbles, recovered by Kenneth D
We identify artefacts displaying areas covered with ochre residues, associated with use-wear, as ochre processing tools (OPT)
Among the ochre processing tools, we distinguish lower grindstones from upper grindstones [53,54,116,117,118]
Summary
Evidence for systematic exploitation of ochre has been reported at several Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites from North and South Africa [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9], as well as Mousterian and Châtelperronian sites in Europe [10,11,12,13,14,15,16] and the Middle East [17,18]. We define "ochre" as rocks containing a high proportion of iron oxides, often mixed with silicates and other mineral substances, which are red or yellow in colour, or are streaked with such shades [19]. The use of these ironrich minerals has often been interpreted to reflect high cognitive functions and symbolic thinking [1,3,9,20,21]. Such analyses remain few in number due to the rarity of these objects in the archaeological record and the methodological challenges associated with the analysis of microscopic ochre residues
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