Abstract
Macrophages are components of the innate immune system that control a plethora of biological processes. Macrophages can be activated towards pro-inflammatory (M1) or anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotypes depending on the cue; however, polarization may be altered in bacterial and viral infections, cancer, or autoimmune diseases. Metal (zinc, iron, titanium, copper, etc.) oxide nanoparticles are widely used in therapeutic applications as drugs, nanocarriers, and diagnostic tools. Macrophages can recognize and engulf nanoparticles, while the influence of macrophage-nanoparticle interaction on cell polarization remains unclear. In this review, we summarize the molecular mechanisms that drive macrophage activation phenotypes and functions upon interaction with nanoparticles in an inflammatory microenvironment. The manifold effects of metal oxide nanoparticles on macrophages depend on the type of metal and the route of synthesis. While largely considered as drug transporters, metal oxide nanoparticles nevertheless have an immunotherapeutic potential, as they can evoke pro- or anti-inflammatory effects on macrophages and become essential for macrophage profiling in cancer, wound healing, infections, and autoimmunity.
Highlights
Macrophages (MΦs) are the essential components of innate immunity
metal oxide NPs (MONPs) as drugs alone or drug carriers have proved their efficacy in a variety of biomedical applications
A new attractive area that goes beyond these situations is a cooperation between MONPs and their cellular hosts
Summary
Macrophages (MΦs) are the essential components of innate immunity. These active phagocytes are the first encounter for external substances, including nanoparticles (NPs). The so-called industrial NPs enter our organism in a non-specific way, as they can be delivered via inhalation, food or water intake, and skin exposure. The emerging medical applications of NPs, in particular, metal oxide NPs (MONPs), raise new questions regarding mechanisms, immunological aspects, and therapeutic relevance of MΦ-NP interaction in a wide variety of physiological and pathological situations. It is well known that MΦs respond to various stimuli and obtain distinct functional profiles to shape the functions of innate and adaptive immune cells. The mechanisms and outcomes of MΦ-NP interaction remain unclear
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