Metal-mediated oxidative DNA damage induced by methylene blue

Abstract

BackgroundMethylene blue (MB) is used for various clinical purposes, including chromoendoscopy and methemoglobinemia treatment. However, MB induces tumors of pancreatic islets and small intestine in experimental animals. This finding raises a possibility that MB induces carcinogenicity in these organs via light-independent mechanisms, although MB is known to cause light-dependent DNA damage. MethodsWe investigated the mechanism of MB-induced DNA damage using 32P-5′-end-labeled DNA fragments of human tumor-relevant genes. We investigated the redox reaction of MB by UV–visible spectrometry. ResultsMB induced DNA damage at the 5′-ACG-3′ sequence, a hot spot of the p53 gene, in the presence of NADH and Cu(II). DNA damage was inhibited by catalase and bathocuproine, a Cu(I)-specific chelator. MB induced DNA damage at every nucleotide in the presence of NADH and Fe(III)-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, which was inhibited by OH scavengers and catalase. MB significantly increased the formation of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine, an oxidative DNA lesion, in the presence of NADH and metal ions. UV–visible spectrometry revealed that the absorbance of oxidized form of MB at 668nm was decreased by NADH, and the addition of metal ions attenuated the spectral change. ConclusionsMB undergoes NADH-dependent reduction followed by metal ion-mediated reoxidation. Reduced metal ions [Cu(I) and Fe(II)] interact with H2O2, generated during the redox reaction, to produce Cu(I)OOH and OH that cause DNA damage, respectively. These findings suggest that metal-mediated DNA damage contributes to MB-mediated carcinogenesis. General significanceThis study would provide an insight into the mechanism of MB-induced carcinogenesis and its safety assurance for clinical use.