Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived membrane-bound nanoparticles, which act as shuttles, delivering a range of biomolecules to diverse target cells. They play an important role in maintenance of biophysiological homeostasis and cellular, physiological, and pathological processes. EVs have significant diagnostic and therapeutic potentials and have been studied both in vitro and in vivo in many fields. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells with many therapeutic applications and have also gained much attention as prolific producers of EVs. MSC-derived EVs are being explored as a therapeutic alternative to MSCs since they may have similar therapeutic effects but are cell-free. They have applications in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering and, most importantly, confer several advantages over cells such as lower immunogenicity, capacity to cross biological barriers, and less safety concerns. In this review, we introduce the biogenesis of EVs, including exosomes and microvesicles. We then turn more specifically to investigations of MSC-derived EVs. We highlight the great therapeutic potential of MSC-derived EVs and applications in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.
Highlights
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived membrane-bound nanoparticles, which act as shuttles, delivering a range of biomolecules to diverse target cells
We introduce the biogenesis of EVs, including exosomes and microvesicles
Many different names have been used for extracellular vesicles, following several independent discoveries, which have led to confusing nomenclature
Summary
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) bearing nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids can be released into the extracellular space from eukaryotic cells, as well as from some prokaryotic cells [1] These released EVs are lipid bilayer-bound nanoparticles and are found in many biological fluids such as serum, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, urine, nasal secretions, and breast milk. The term “extracellular vesicles” (EVs) was introduced by ISEV to describe preparations of vesicles isolated from biofluids and cell cultures [3]. Based on their size and biogenesis, EVs could be classified into three main subclasses: exosomes (40-120 nm), microvesicles (50-1000 nm), and apoptotic bodies (500-2000 nm) [6]. Both microvesicles and apoptotic bodies are directly shed from the plasma membrane but via different cellular processes, whereas exosomes are generated by the endocytic pathway and are originally considered to play a important role in cell-to-cell communication [7]
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