Men. Roots and Consequences of Masculinity Norms

Abstract

We document the historical roots and contemporary consequences of masculinity norms: beliefs about the proper conduct of men. We exploit a natural experiment in which convict transportation in the 18th and 19th centuries created a variegated spatial pattern of sex ratios across Australia. Areas that were heavily male-biased in the past (though not the present) remain characterized by more violence, male suicide, occupational gender segregation, opposition to same-sex marriage, and bullying of boys in schools. We interpret these results as manifestations of masculinity norms that emerged due to intense local male-male competition and that have persisted to this day.