Mass Rearing and Biological Characteristics of Galleria mellonella L. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Using an Artificial Diet

The effect of hostage, the instar of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) parasitized, on the growth and development of Encarsia formosa (Gahan) was studied. E. formosa was able to parasitize and complete its life cycle no matter which instar of B. tabaci (Strain B), [also identified as B. argentifolii (Bellows and Perring)], was provided for oviposition, but parasitoid development was significantly slower when 1st or 2nd instar B. tabaci rather than 3rd or 4th instars were parasitized. Host age influenced the day on which E. formosa nymphs hatching from eggs was first observed. Mean embryonic development was significantly longer when 1st (5.4 days) rather than 2nd, 3rd or 4th instars (4.1, 3.4 and 3.5 days, respectively) were parasitized. The duration of the 1st instar parasitoid and the pupa, but not the 2nd or 3rd instar parasitoid, were also significantly greater when 1st instars were parasitized than when older host instars were parasitized. Interestingly, no matter which instar was parasitized, the parasitoid did not molt to the 3rd instar until the 4th instar host had reached a depth of about 0.23 mm (Stage 4–5) and had initiated the nymphal-adult molt and adult development. Histological studies revealed that whitefly eye and wing structures had either disintegrated or were adult in nature whenever a 3rd instar parasitoid was present. It appears, then, that the molt of the parasitoid to its last instar is associated with the host whitefly's nymphal-adult molt. However, the initiation of the host's final molt, while a prerequisite for the parasitoid's 2nd–3rd instar molt, did not necessarily trigger this molt. In contrast to its significant effect on various aspects of parasitoid development, host instar did not significantly influence the mean size of the parasitoid larva, pupa, or adult. Larval and pupal length and adult head width were similar for all parasitoids, regardless of which host instar was parasitized as was adult longevity. Adult parasitoid emergence was more synchronous when 2nd, 3rd and 4th instars were parasitized than when 1st instars were parasitized. Results are compared with those reported when the greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum, was parasitized by E. formosa, and provide possible explanations for why T. vaporariorum is a more suitable host than B. tabaci for E. formosa.

The effect of hostage, the instar of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) parasitized, on the growth and development of Encarsia formosa (Gahan) was studied. E. formosa was able to parasitize and complete its life cycle no matter which instar of B. tabaci (Strain B), [also identified as B. argentifolii (Bellows and Perring)], was provided for oviposition, but parasitoid development was significantly slower when 1st or 2nd instar B. tabaci rather than 3rd or 4th instars were parasitized. Host age influenced the day on which E. formosa nymphs hatching from eggs was first observed. Mean embryonic development was significantly longer when 1st (5.4 days) rather than 2nd, 3rd or 4th instars (4.1, 3.4 and 3.5 days, respectively) were parasitized. The duration of the 1st instar parasitoid and the pupa, but not the 2nd or 3rd instar parasitoid, were also significantly greater when 1st instars were parasitized than when older host instars were parasitized. Interestingly, no matter which instar was parasitized, the parasitoid did not molt to the 3rd instar until the 4th instar host had reached a depth of about 0.23 mm (Stage 4-5) and had initiated the nymphal-adult molt and adult development. Histological studies revealed that whitefly eye and wing structures had either disintegrated or were adult in nature whenever a 3rd instar parasitoid was present. It appears, then, that the molt of the parasitoid to its last instar is associated with the host whitefly's nymphal-adult molt. However, the initiation of the host's final molt, while a prerequisite for the parasitoid's 2nd-3rd instar molt, did not necessarily trigger this molt. In contrast to its significant effect on various aspects of parasitoid development, host instar did not significantly influence the mean size of the parasitoid larva, pupa, or adult. Larval and pupal length and adult head width were similar for all parasitoids, regardless of which host instar was parasitized as was adult longevity. Adult parasitoid emergence was more synchronous when 2nd, 3rd and 4th instars were parasitized than when 1st instars were parasitized. Results are compared with those reported when the greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum, was parasitized by E. formosa, and provide possible explanations for why T. vaporariorum is a more suitable host than B. tabaci for E. formosa.

This study evaluated the development and reproduction of Ceraeochrysa cubana when fed the citrus blackfly Aleurocanthus woglumi. The study was carried out at the Laboratory of Entomology, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Federal University of Paraíba – Areia/PB. It used a completely randomized design. The study was conducted in climate chambers, regulated to 26 ± 2°C and a relative humidity of 70 ± 10% with a 12 h photoperiod. The treatments were as follows: eggs, nymphs of only the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th instars, and nymphs of multiple instars (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th instars) of A. woglumi, with eggs of Sitotroga cerealella as a control. The 1st instar of C. cubana lasted 5.8 to 10.7 days, the 2nd instar lasted 6.0 to 13.3 days, and the 3rd instar lasted 8.2 to 18.5 days. The larvae of C. cubana did not survive when the food provided was only the eggs of A. woglumi, since the predator could not eat them. C. cubana, when provided nymphs of multiple instars (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th instars) of the citrus blackfly, had a shorter pre-pupal period and lower longevity than when consuming the eggs of S. cerealella, but the sex ratio and oviposition period were not affected. However, changes occurred in the pre-oviposition period, the total number of eggs, and the number of viable eggs.

Four species of Spodoptera (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera) viz., S. litura (F.), S. mauritia Boisduval, S. exigua (Hub.) and S. frugiperda (J.E. Smith) were reared on castor, rice, chickpea and on artificial diet, respectively under laboratory conditions during 2017–2019 at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. The observations on the geometrics of growth in terms of width of head capsule (widest head width) confirming to Dyar's law were made. In S. litura the linear growth ratio was 1.45 confirming a regular geometrical progression in the consecutive larval instars. In S. mauritia and S. frugiperda it was 1.62 and 1.94, respectively; but in S. exigua it was observed to vary as 1.41 (between 1st and 2nd instars), 2.61 (2nd and 3rd instars), 1.05 (3rd and 4th instars) and 1.64 (4th and 5th), with a mean of 1.68, and slightly deviating from Dyar's law. In specific, it was of the ratio of 2.61 between 2nd and 3rd instars showing the maximum progression factor, and confirming the variation among the four species evaluated.

BackgroundOenopia conglobata (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) is a generalist predator feeding on several insect pests and utilized as a biological control agent in Türkiye. However, significant cannibalism has been observed among its different life stages under low food/prey availability. This study determined adult-egg, adult-larva, larva-egg, and larva-larva cannibalism of O. conglobata under laboratory conditions.ResultsCannibalism among different life stages was observed under no supplemental diet (treatment group) or sufficient (100 Ephestia kuehniella eggs per individual) supplemental diet (control group). Fifty eggs per adult were provided to the 24 h-starved male and female adults for determining adult-egg cannibalism. Similarly, male, and female adults received 30 and 20 1st and 2nd instars, respectively to observe adult-larval cannibalism. Likewise, 10, 20, 30 and 40 eggs to 24-h starved 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th instars, respectively were provided to record larval–egg cannibalism. By the same way, 12-h starved 4th instar was provided 1st instar (20 per individual) to determine larval–larval cannibalism. The experiments for males, females, and instars were conducted separately and cannibalism was assessed by prey consumption in treatment group relevant to the control group. Cannibalism significantly differed among sexes and instars (for larva-egg cannibalism). Overall, males and females consumed higher number of eggs in treatment group compared to their relevant controls. Female and male adults in treatment group exhibited 8.27- and 7.16-fold cannibalism on eggs. Likewise, females exhibited the highest cannibalism (2.84-folds) on 1st instar. The 4th instar consumed the highest number of eggs; however, the highest cannibalism rate was recorded for the 3rd instar. The 3rd instar exhibited 4.63-fold cannibalism on eggs. Nevertheless, the 4th instar exhibited 3.56-folds cannibalism on 1st instar.ConclusionsStarved O. conglobata individuals exhibited significant cannibalism among different life stages. Therefore, during mass rearing they shouldn’t be starved. Furthermore, the cannibalistic behavior should be considered during the mass release of O. conglobata.

Nezara is a genus of world-wide distribution and has been represented in Japan by two species, N. antennata SCOTT and N. viridula (LINNÉ), both of which are well known pests of soy been and other various cultivated crops. This genus is considerably related to Glaucias, Palomena and Plautia, which frequently attack fruit-trees and vegetables. There are six species belonging to the above three genera known in Japan. Among those species, Nezara antennata SCOTT and Plautia ståli SCOTT have already been reported on their larval stages by ISHIHARA (1950) and by the author (1956), but Glaucias subpunctatus (WALKER), Plautia splendens DISTANT, Nezara viridula (LINNÉ) and Palomena angulosa (MOTSCHULSKY) have not been studied yet. In the present paper, the developmental stages of the last two species, together with their ecological notes, are described.The diagnoses of the Genus NezaraEgg: Cylindrical, with gently curved operculum and vertical wall somewhat thickened in the upper margin. Uniformly pale yellow or pale greenish yellow at an early stage. Chorion white and levigate, without particular structure on surface. Micropylar projections white, rather short, capitate. T-shaped egg-burster light brown or blackish brown, well-chitinized, arms thinly depressed laterally, membraneous appendages mostly transparent except light grayish brown lateral portions or bordered with extremely light grayish tinge infero-laterally. Egg-mass usually consisting of about 50 to 70 eggs which are deposited on the under-surface of host plant leaves, forming a rather regular hexagon.Larvae: Body not so much depressed. Stigmata placed interior to the connexiva of second to eighth abdominal segments, those on eighth conspicuously smaller than others. The first instar larva bears dorsally a large, round, orange yellow or pale yellowish brown marking extending from vertex to metanotum. The second to fifth instar larvae bear several conspicuous, large or small, round or oblong, orange yellow or white markings adjacent to postero-lateral margins of dorsal plates. A comparatively large, oblong white marking interior to the connexiva of the first and the second abdominal segments and a round white marking interior to each connexivum of the third to the seventh or to the eighth abdominal segments.Key to the species of the Genus Nezara1 (2) In he egg before hatching, red eyespots and dark egg-burster visible through operculum. Egg-burster mostly light brown, membraneous appendages translucent except light grayish brown lateral portions. A large round pale yellowish brown marking extending from vertex to metanotum in the first instar larva. The antero-lateral margins of pronotum of the fifth instar larva not so much curved as an arc of circle, posterior angles more or less protruded laterally beyond the anterior angles of mesonotum. ………Nezara antennata SCOTT2 (1) In the egg before hatching, in addition to eye-spots and egg-burster, a large reddish trapezoid marking clearly visible through operculum. Egg-burster mostly black, membraneous appendages mainly translucent, bordered with extremely light grayish tinge infero-laterally. A large round marking extending from vertex to metanotum of the first instar larva orange yellow. The antero-lateral margins of pronotum of the fifth instar larva strongly curved as an arc of circle, its posterior angles not projecting laterally beyond the anterior angles of mesonotum. ………N. viridula (LINNÉ)The diagnoses of the Genus PalomenaEgg: Elliptical, upper part of which is more or less bigger than the under part. At an early stage, the eggs are entirely pale greenish, but later, towards the hatch, eye-spots and egg-burster become visible through the chorion. Chorion whitish

The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), a newly invasive pest, has natural insect enemies that hold promise as biological control agents. Here we analyzed predation rates between natural enemy insect, the syrphid Episyrphus balteatus (De Geer) and S. frugiperda in all paired combinations of all immature stages for each insect in petri dishes. The 2nd and 3rd instars E. balteatus larvae consumed 1st and 2nd instars S. frugiperda larvae, and 3rd and higher larval instars of S. frugiperda preyed on all instar larvae of E. balteatus. The 2nd and 3rd instars larvae of E. balteatus preyed on 1st and 2nd larval instars of S. frugiperda, consistent with the Holling type III response in petri dishes, with a theoretical maximum predation of 77 and 71 individuals in 24 h. The 5th and 6th instars S. frugiperda larvae consumed E. balteatus larvae, also with the Holling type III response, with a theoretical maximum predation on 1st instar E. balteatus larvae were 29 and 36 individuals, respectively. In a plant cage trial study, predation results were similar to those in petri dishes but with a lower predation number. None of the S. frugiperda larvae that fed on E. balteatus larvae developed to adulthood, and only about 20% of E. balteatus larvae that fed on S. frugiperda larvae became adults which had a significantly shorter lifespan than those who consume aphids. This two-way predation study revealed the complexity of S. frugiperda invasion and provided new insights into relationship between pests and natural enemies.

During this study the toxic effect of Actara and ginger oil of Zingiber officinale, individually or in combination, on the 3rd and 5th instar larvae of greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella L. was investigated. The percentages of mortality of 3rd and 5th instars larval stage exposed for Actara, at concentrations of 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2 µl/ larva, after 24 hours exposure were 17.50, 25.00 and 32.50 %, and 10.00, 12.50 and 17.50 respectively. The percentages of mortality of 3rd and 5th instars larval stage exposed to mixture 1:1 of Actara insecticide and ginger oil at concentrations of 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2 µl/ larva were 26.60, 40.00 and 50.00% (for 3rd instar), and 20, 26.60 and 33.30% (for 5th instar) respectively, after exposure period of 24 hours. While the mortality of 3rd and 5th instars larval stage exposed to the mixing ratio 1:2 (Actara insecticide and ginger oil) of the same concentrations and same exposure period mentioned previously, were 36.60, 46.00 and 63.30 % (for 3rd instar), and 26.60, 36.60 and 46.60% (for 5th instar), respectively. Whereas in the mixing ratio 1:3(Actara insecticide and ginger oil) of same concentrations and same exposure period mentioned previously, the mortality (3rd and 5th instars larvae) were 53.30, 63.00 and 90.00 % (for 3rd instar), and 33.30, 46.60 and 63.00% (for 5th instar), respectively. The synergistic ratios for 3rd and 5th instars larval stage exposed to mixtures 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3 (different concentrations of Actara insecticide and ginger oil), were 1.25, 1.6 and 2.4 (for 3rd instar), and 1.88, 3.50 and 4.01 (for 5th instar), respectively, after 24 hours of exposure. This indicates that a combination of different concentrations of the Actara insecticide with ginger oil produced synergistic effect.

Biological aspects and predatory capacity of Doru luteipes was assessed as a function of predation on Spodoptera frugiperda. The experiment was conducted under laboratory conditions of mean temperature of 25 ± 1 °C, relative humidity of 70 ± 10%, and 12:12 h (Light: Dark) photoperiod. To evaluate the biological parameters of D. luteipes, artificial diet, eggs and caterpillar (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th or 6th instars) of S. frugiperda were supplied. The completely randomized statistical design was used, with 10 replicates for each treatment. The nymphs (1st, 2nd and 3rd instars) and adult males and females of D. luteipes were individualized in Petri dish (9 cm diameter), with artificial diet as standard food (control). Nymphs of the 1st and 3rd instars of the predator lasted 4.5 and 6.9, days respectively, but they perished. The survival of D. luteipes is high, but there was variation when consuming the different instars of the caterpillar of S. frugiperda. Adults of D. luteipes did not consume caterpillars of the 4th, 5th and 6th instars of the prey. There was a significant difference for the feeding of D. luteipes with artificial diet, eggs and caterpillar of S. frugiperda with respect to the parameters number of eggs and preoviposition. Higher consumption of male and female D. luteipes occurs when they are fed with prey eggs.

Host age preference of Microplitis mediator (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), an endoparasitoid of Mythimna separata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Encarsia formosa Gahan (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) is a solitary endoparasitoid that is commercially reared and released for augmentative biological control of whiteflies infesting greenhouse crops. In most areas in China, the invasive and destructive whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) biotype Q has replaced B. tabaci biotype B and has become dominant between the two. A better understanding of the suitability of different nymphal instars of B. tabaci biotypes Q and B as hosts for E. formosa is needed to improve the use of this parasitoid for biological control. Parasitism of the four nymphal instars of B. tabaci biotypes Q and B by the commercial strain of E. formosa mass reared on Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) was assessed in the laboratory. The results indicated that E. formosa parasitized and successfully developed on all instars of both biotypes but performed best on the 3rd instar of B. tabaci biotype B and on the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th instars of B. tabaci biotype Q. The host-feeding rate of the adult parasitoid was generally higher on nymphal instars of B. tabaci biotype Q than on the corresponding nymphal instars of biotype B and was significantly higher on the 2nd and 3rd instars. For both whitefly biotypes, the parasitoid’s immature developmental period was the longest on the 1st instar, intermediate on the 2nd and 3rd instars, and the shortest on the 4th instar. The parasitoid emergence rate was significantly lower on the 1st instar than on the other three instars and did not significantly differ between B. tabaci biotype B and biotype Q. Offspring longevity was greater on the 3rd and 4th instars than on the 1st instar and did not significantly differ between the two B. tabaci biotypes. The results indicate that commercially-produced E. formosa can parasitize all instars of B. tabaci biotypes B and Q, making this parasitoid a promising tool for the management of the two biotypes of B. tabaci present in China.

Green lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea) is a beneficial insect that is widely used in integrated pest management due to its voracious predation against different pest species such as aphids, mites, coccids and mealy bugs. Biorational insecticides are generally regarded as less toxic to the environment and have high target specificity. Two different biorational insecticides (lethal and sub-lethal doses) were applied i.e., T1: Afidopyropen (2 ml / 500 ml water), T2: Afidopyropen (0.5 ml / 500 ml water), T3: Spinetoram (0.024 g / 500 ml water), T4: Spinetoram (0.012 g­­ / 500 ml water) and T5: Control (500 ml water) in the Complete Randomized Design (CRD) with five replications. The maximum average survival of 1st instar was showed 1.0 ± 0.0 on 1 Day After Spray at sub-lethal dose (T2), while its minimum survival was noted on 5 DAS (0.4 ± 0.2) at lethal doses (T1 and T3), respectively. Similarly, the highest average survival of 2nd and 3rd instars was observed 1.0 ± 0.0 and 0.8 ± 0.2 against sub-lethal doses (T2: and T4), at different intervals as well as the lowest survival was indicated 0.4 ± 0.2 and 0.6 ± 0.2 at 7 and 9 DAS against T1 and T3, respectively. In T5 (control), the maximum average survival was recorded 1.0 ± 0.0 at initial intervals as compared to last intervals. The data furthermore revealed that the minimum mortality rate of 1st, 2nd and 3rd larval instars was observed 20-40% on 3, 5, 7 and 9 DAS on sub-lethal doses (T2 and T4), while the maximum mortality was seen 60% on 5, 7 and 9 DAS on lethal doses (T1 and T3), respectively. In T5 (control), there were showed 20% mortality during 5, 7 and 9 DAS in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd larval instars, respectively. Furthermore, the surviving 3rd larval instars were transformed into pupation, however, the maximum pupal survival and adult emergence was observed 60-80% at sub-lethal doses of both insecticides, whereas its minimum range was seen 20-60% at lethal doses, respectively. In T5: control, 80% pupal survival was observed, while 100% adult emergence was shown during the experiment, respectively. It is concluded that lowest mortality of 1st, 2nd and 3rd instars was found at sub-lethal doses as compared to lethal doses, respectively.

During this study the toxic effect of Actara and ginger oil of Zingiber officinale, individually or in combination, on the 3rd and 5th instar larvae of greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella L. was investigated. The percentages of mortality of 3rd and 5th instars larval stage exposed to Actara, at concentrations of 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2 µl/ larva, after 24 hours exposure were 17.50, 25.00 and 32.50 %, and 10.00, 12.50 and 17.50 respectively. The percentages of mortality of 3rd and 5th instars larval stage exposed to mixture 1:1 of Actara insecticide and ginger oil at concentrations of 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2 µl/ larva were 26.60, 40.00 and 50.00% (for 3rd instar), and 20, 26.60 and 33.30% (for 5th instar) respectively, after exposure period of 24 hours. While the mortality of 3rd and 5th instars larval stage exposed to the mixing ratio 1:2 (Actara insecticide and ginger oil) of the same concentrations and same exposure period mentioned previously, were 36.60, 46.00 and 63.30 % (for 3rd instar), and 26.60, 36.60 and 46.60% (for 5th instar), respectively. Whereas in the mixing ratio 1:3 (Actara insecticide and ginger oil) of same concentrations and same exposure period mentioned previously, the mortality (3rd and 5th instars larvae) were 53.30, 63.00 and 90.00 % (for 3rd instar), and 33.30, 46.60 and 63.00% (for 5th instar), respectively. The synergistic ratios for 3rd and 5th instars larval stage exposed to mixtures 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3 (different concentrations of Actara insecticide and ginger oil), were 1.25, 1.6 and 2.4 (for 3rd instar), and 1.88, 3.50 and 4.01 (for 5th instar), respectively, after 24 hours of exposure. This indicates that a combination of different concentrations of the Actara insecticide with ginger oil produced synergistic effect.

Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.), commonly known as the mustard aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae), is the most notorious, globally distributed, and obligatory ectoparasite of many field crop including rapeseed and mustard. An investigation was carried out to assess the biology and fertility life table of Coccinella septempunctata in Bio-control lab, Department of Entomology at CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar following the standard protocol at the laboratory condition of temperature (T) 25±2°C, relative humidity (RH) 65±5% RH, and 16:8 light:dark (L:D). Biological studies revealed that Coccinella septempunctata (L.), predatoryfemale laying eggs either singly or in masses (546.90 eggs/female) were vibrant yellowand spindle shape with an incubation period of 3.50 days. Hatchability was 86.00±5.62 per cent. There were four grub instars followed by pre-pupal stage, mean grub duration of 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th instar was 1.68±0.47, 3.18±0.60, 3.08±0.65 and 5.02±0.73 days. Total grub duration extended for 12.97±0.61 days. Larval survival was 74.44 per cent, followed by a pre-pupal period of 1.05±0.18 days and pupal duration of 5.93±0.86 days. Total grubs and pupal period were computed to be 18.90 ± 1.16 days with adult emergence 77.22 per cent. Total developmental period, from egg to adult was 23.45±1.20 days. Adult became darker in colour and have seven spots, three on each wing and one in the middle, near the head and act as predator to control mustard aphid. Females of beetle survived longer than the males with ovipositional period of 23.10 days and preponderance of female has been noticed with female: male ratio of 1.62: 1 in the study.

Differences in droplet density and spectrum of pesticide deposited on foliage after spray were examined to determine differences in gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar L., larval mortality. The susceptibility of 2nd, 3rd, and 4th instars of the gypsy moth to undiluted Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki was examined under laboratory conditions. Droplets of known size (100, 200, and 300 μm) and density (1, 5, and 10 drops/cm 2 ) of B. thuringiensis kurstaki were sprayed onto leaf disks of oak foliage and fed to gypsy moth larvae. Parameters tested were time required for mortality, leaf area consumed, and changes in larval weight. The time to mortality increased as droplet density and size decreased and as larval size increased. Droplet densities of 5 and 10 drops/cm 2 were effective (> 90% mortality) against 2nd and 3rd instars. Fourth instars had high mortality rates at 5 and 10 drops/cm 2 at the 200 μm and 300 μm droplet sizes. Low droplet densities (1 drop/cm 2 ) at 100 μm were ineffective in controlling 3rd and 4th instars. Surviving treated larvae had lower post treatment weights than control larvae and exhibited weight loss during the experiment. As droplet density increased, larvae consumed less foliage. Foliage consumed by surviving treated larvae was 2-6 times less than foliage consumed by untreated larvae.