Managing geothermal project implementation conflicts through mediation: A case of Olkaria IV Project, Nakuru county, Kenya

This article outlines the gender dynamics that determine men and women’s involvement in Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Mechanisms in Kapsokwony, Bungoma County. It highlights that while ADR mechanisms are normally considered participatory and inclusive in Kenya, the reality however is that they remain male dominated. The study was based on a mixed research method whose methodology involved research survey, interview, and Focus Group Discussions. Findings from studies carried out across the global confirm that men continue to have upper hand over women with regards to participation in conflict resolution using ADR (Alternative Dispute Resolution) mechanisms for number of reasons. The situation was found not different in the context of Kapsokwony, a sub-county of Bungoma County in Kenya. This study discussed the multidimensional factors that continue to contribute to men upper hand over women in resolving conflict through ADR mechanisms. Keywords: Gender equality, Participation, Exclusion, Alternative Dispute Resolution, conflict Resolution DOI: 10.7176/RHSS/10-21-05 Publication date: November 30 th 2020

Agroforestry greatly helps to improve production by creating the right conditions for other components of the production system and also creates other income streams and benefits. Agroforestry also creates an alternative source of forest derived products and thus help reduce forest destruction. The development of agroforestry in Africa has not been very successful due to poor understanding of the underlying socio-economic factors underpinning the adoption in specific local contexts, including adjacent forest communities. This hinders proper decision making hence ineffective management of agroforestry practices. This is especially the case for Ndabibi Location an area marked by low farm production including degradation of the adjacent Eburru Forest. This study, therefore, aimed to analyze the socio-economic factors affecting agroforestry adoption in Ndabibi Location, a forest adjacent community. This study used a descriptive study design and systematic sampling design. The study used primary and secondary data where primary data was collected using a household questionnaire survey, focus group discussions, key informant interviews and observations. The study found socio-economic factors either have positive or negative relationships with agroforestry adoption. The factors that have a positive relationship with agroforestry practice include age, household size, formal education level, contact with extension services, membership to community-based associations and income levels. Gender, land size and forest dependency were found to have a negative relationship with the adoption of agroforestry practice. Understanding of the socio-economic factors underlying and thus affecting adoption of agroforestry adoption in Ndabibi Location will help communities, policymakers and practitioners to make the right planning and management decisions towards the promotion of agroforestry practice in forest adjacent communities. This shall increase the production, livelihoods and income sources diversification hence leading to the sustainable management of forest ecosystems.

Purpose: This article outlines the levels of participation of men and women in resolving community conflicts using Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanisms in Kapsokwony, Kenya. It highlights that ADR are currently considered participatory and inclusive processes to resolve community conflicts as they offer men and women a major stake in conflict resolution in society due to their roles and positions in society. Methodology: Findings across the globe confirm that when men and women equally participate in resolution of community conflicts there is increased likelihood of reaching an agreement and of the longevity of the agreement. This implies that for effective ADR, the participation of both men and women would be crucial. The study was based on a mixed research method whose methodology involved research survey, interview and Focus Group Discussions. In consideration of the fact that gender equality is strongly advocated for in conflict resolution, the study sought to establish the situation in Kapsokwony. The study therefore sought to assess the levels of men’s and women’s participation in ADR mechanisms in Kapsokwony.Results: The study established that power was a factor that influenced the level of participation. Consequently, the level was simply established to be that of neutral/passive to a very high participation level of women participation in ADR mechanism. However, those that were participating at high levels in ADR were few and their power was invested in the office they held. Furthermore, the study established that in the Nyumba Kumi structure, women level of participation in conflict resolution was increasing from neutral/neutral to a higher level of participation where they fully participated in leading and influencing decisions on resolution of conflicts. This can be explained because the nature of the Nyumba Kumi structure allows for everyone to be actively involved in ensuring safety and welfare of the ten households’ members. Urban Thinkers Campus (2015) confirms that women are involved in ensuring safety in urban and rural settlements mainly through the Nyumba Kumi Initiative in which they are part of the leadership committee. Unique contribution to theory, policy, and practice: Alternative Dispute Resolution mechanisms help in creating an environment that fosters development, peace, and social justice amongst other positive values amidst community conflicts. The United Nations (2007) Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People advocates for equal participation of men and women in the management of community conflicts. Participation of both men and women in ADR processes to resolve community conflicts in Kapsokwony Sub-county region is a field that studies have not adequately explored. This study hopes to contribute to existing literature on men’s and women’s participation in ADR for land disputes. The outcome of this study may be utilized to influence increased participation of women in ADR, within Kapsokwony Sub-county region. Additionally, the study’s findings will add to the growing body of literature pertaining to the participation of both men and women in peace building within the Kenyan context. Lastly, the findings of this study form the foundation upon which future research can be done

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to unravel the changing nature of climate change impact on the food and human security sector of the Nigerian State.Design/methodology/approachThis study is an in-depth case study that involves the use of both quantitative and qualitative data. Statistical data on climate variability in Nigeria obtained from reliable databases were use in the making of analysis. Also, data derived from semi-structure interviews and special reports from International Non-governmental organizations on the subject matter were also used in the study. The findings of the study were based on an in-depth analysis of both primary and secondary sources of data. The secondary data were derived from existing published academic works. The primary data was developed using qualitative data that were collected from January to November, 2018 to 2019 in the different regions of Nigeria. For the South East, primary data was collected from Abakaliki, Ebonyi State. In the South-South, primary data was collected from Asaba, Delta State. In the South West, primary data was collected from Barutin, Kwara State. In the North East, primary data was collected from Maiduguri, while in North West, data was collected from Gusau, Zamfara State. In the North Central, data was collected from Markurdi, Benue State. During the data collection, 48 semi-structured Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) were carried out in the six selected research areas that represented their geo-political zones. Six Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were carried out, one for each of these six selected cities. Each of the Focus Group Discussions comprised between five and seven respondents. The idea of KIIs and FGDs is to allow the respondents to freely express their ideas comprehensively. Again, in other to get varied forms of responses, the respondents are mainly farmers however, a number of NGOs, civil servants, fertilizer sellers, government officials, transporters and aged men and women/retirees. It should be noted that the respondents cut across male and female gender of all ages and ethnic configuration. The respondents were also randomly selected through social networking. To avoid having people of similar The KIIs were three academics; two community leaders; two small scale fish farmers; rice, cassava, fish, livestock and crop farmers. All KIIs ad TIs were transcribed and analysed using thematic content analysis.FindingsThe findings revealed that climate change has negatively affected food security in Nigeria. it has also led to continuous armed confrontations over natural resources thereby undermining human security in the country.Originality/valueThis study is 100% original and can be assessed through turn it in evaluation.

Current cotton production systems are most vulnerable to climate extremes in the world but particularly in Sindh, Pakistan. There is a drier need to assess the climate vulnerability and develop climate-resilient production technologies and adaptation plan to combat the climate extremes. A study was conducted in three districts of Sindh province (Ghotki, Sukkur, and Khairpur). Both primary and secondary data of cotton growers (small, medium and large land holding) and different relevant departments of cotton was collected. Three data collection tools were used in this study. Primary data was collected directly from farmers by conducting Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) by engaging local cotton growers. Key informant interviews (KIIs) guide was used for the consultation with officials in government and other cotton related departments. Survey of cotton growers/farmers were conducted in these three districts by selecting farmers randomly. HCPL has conducted 13 FGDs with the beneficiary’s farmers (men and women). Out of the total, seven FGDs were conducted with male farmers and six FGDs were held with female farmers in three studied districts. In each FGDs 10 to 12 farmers participated actively in the discussion and data collection. In total 130 farmers consulted through FGDs in the studied region. Results showed that, the current cotton production system is vulnerable to climate change and climate resilient site-specific production technologies are required by adopting good management practices. Due to competing crops and unavailability of resources, cotton crop area has been shifted to other crops like sugarcane, so climate adaptation plan is required to reduce the cost of production. Increasing area under sugarcane crop also has negative effect on cotton crop due to high humid climatic conditions and leads to more insect pest infestation. Currently, cotton is being sown after wheat during the month of May, while sub optimum and substandard input like seed, fertilizer, and management practices being used. Farmers are also lacking in climate knowledge, and while there is no weather agro-advisory system available for farmers related to climate extremes conditions (drought, heat, and floods). Financial incentive system is also required for cotton crop just like other crops in the region. Good quality seed and input at lower rates are unavailable in this region. There is knowledge gap existed and farmer’s field school are required to develop the capacity building of the farmers to adopt climate resilient production technology. Cotton crop is sensitive to weather while climate forecast is also missing at gross root level, there is need to strength the system to deliver the information to the cotton growers to manage the cotton accordingly. There also need to strength the coordination and productive linkages with research institutes and academia that are working for the production enhancement of cotton crop. Climate resilient production technology transfer is also required to mitigate the negative effects of climate change. There is need to strengthen the marketing system of cotton for effective functioning of the key cotton value chain actors.

Aims: The primary focus of this empirical study was to investigate the factors influencing the level of GAP adoption for cucurbit vegetable in the Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka.
 Study Design: Three-stage purposive and proportionate sampling 
 Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out in the Anuradhapura district, North Central Province of Sri Lanka in 2018. 
 Methodology: Primary and secondary data were used in the study. The primary data were collected mainly through a field survey using a structured and pre-tested questionnaire. The total sample size was 120. Key informant interviews (KII), and a focus group discussion (FGD) were conducted to triangulate data and information obtained from the questionnaire survey and to obtain additional qualitative information. Descriptive analytical techniques, analysis of variance (ANOVA) test, and the General Linear Model (GLM) were employed for the data analysis. 
 Results: Results revealed that 40% of respondents are moderate level GAP adopters, whilst about 68% practiced more than half of the recommended GAPs. The results of ANOVA revealed that farmers who adopted a higher proportion of GAPs earned a higher farming income, than those who practiced a moderate or low proportion of GAPs. Similarly, when compared to moderate and poor level GAP adopters, the average cost of production of higher-level adopters decreased significantly (p < 0.05). The results of the regression analysis revealed that farmer awareness of GAPs, farmer education level, farming experience, farming income, and cost of cultivation have a significant (p < 0.05) effect on the level of GAP adoption by cucurbit farmers.
 Conclusion: Awareness of GAPs, farmer education level, farming experience, and farming income significantly affect the adoption level of GAPs. Policy priority should be given to planning for a long-term farmer awareness program on GAPs through proper training and extension programs.

Climate change poses a threat to food production in the world and decreases the viability of smallholder dairy farming in Nakuru County. The potential of dairy farming in Nakuru County is high, but few farmers apply climate-smart technologies. This reduces the production of milk and the ability of farmers to withstand climate change. There is limited empirical evidence on the climate-smart technologies among smallholder dairy farmers in the area. This paper, therefore, assessed (i) institutional characteristics of smallholder dairy farmers; and (ii) climate-smart technologies adopted by smallholder dairy farmers in Njoro Sub-County, Nakuru County, to guide targeted, context-specific evidence to inform policy and programmes that increase productivity as well as environmental conservation. A cross-sectional survey design was applied, with a multi-stage sampling method selecting 110 respondents. Data was collected through semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, observations, and key informant interviews and analysed using descriptive statistics. The results showed that farmers adopted various climate-smart technologies. Rainwater harvesting was embraced by (98.18%) of the respondents, followed by improved fodder (92.73%) and agroforestry (89.09%). Additional practises were improved livestock breeds (85.45%) and zero grazing (53.64%), silage and hay making (45.45%). Biogas (10.91%) and solar energy (8.18%) were the least adopted technologies. The research concludes that the most widely adopted technologies are low-cost and readily available. The research recommends strengthening extension and training services through increased staffing at the Ward level and regular farm visits. It also proposes additional financial support networks, including subsidies and favourable credit, to reduce initial investment costs.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of land degradation on freshwater and local communities’ participation in case Essera districtMethodology: This study was carried out in Essera Woreda of Dawuro zone in Ethiopia. Essera district was selected using purposive sampling technique because of the extensive problems of effect of land degradation on freshwater biodiversity and local community’s participation. The study was conducted using a combination of qualitative and participatory methods of data collection, including formal and informal interviews, semi-structured interviews; Key informant interviews (KI) as well as focus group discussion (FGD) with elderly people, model farmers, DAs and other concerned government bodies. The study was employed both primary and secondary data source. Primary data was collected from personal interview transect walking, and direct observation of the study area. The secondary data included information from natural resource office, other stakeholder office and review of different written document reports. The study data was collected through key informant interview and questionnaire. Microsoft excel 2010 was used for analyzing data and generating tabulated reports and charts. Tabular and categorization method was used as a method of data analysis for qualitative information.Results: The problem of land degradation could not be solved without addressing the socio-economic problems of the area. Demand based technologies; people’s participation, effective conservation, education and sense of ownership are the key elements essential for the sustainable management of natural resources. Simple and low cost technologies are more acceptable for farmers rather than expensive and labor intensive conservation techniques. Farmers need technologies which they can easily understand and implement on their farms with minimum cost.Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: Sustainable and participatory soil and water conservation structures must be developed to reduce degradation and achieve the productivity of the eroded land. Further, the government or NGO’s should provide alternative source of fuel (Electricity, Natural gas etc.), so that natural vegetation and crop residue would be saved and used for soil and water conservation.

This study was conducted to assess key livelihood strategies and to examine major socio-economic constraints that hinder households from engage in diversified activities, in two Peasant Associations of Boricha Woreda, Southern Ethiopia. From the two Peasant Associations, 110 households were selected through simple random sampling technique. Both primary and secondary data were collected to come up with dependable conclusion. Primary data were collected by conducting survey and participatory rural appraisal tools. The primary data was gathered through structured household questionnaire and further supplemented by key informant interview and focus group discussions. Quantitative data which was collected from primary sources were analyzed using SPSS 20.0 version and reported through descriptive statistics like mean, standard deviation, percentage and frequency distribution. In the study area, rural households engaged in portfolio of livelihood activities though farming activity taken as the major share (87%) followed by trade (68%) and other off-farm activities. However, the participation in diversified livelihoods is constrained by low awareness level of farmers to adopt modern technologies, lack of credit, weak extension services, lack of skill, wrong attitude of the local community, and household average income. Based on the findings, strengthening access of start-up capital to initiate small businesses through cooperatives and credit institutions, providing vocational training to increase households’ skill to use locally available resources, improving access of rural infrastructure, strengthen the implementation of functional adult literacy program and increasing awareness level of the community through training were suggested as recommendations. Key words: Assets, livelihood diversification, migration, non-farm.

The study was conducted in Tigray, Laelay Maichew woreda to assess the food security status of rural households. Different concepts and empirical findings are profoundly organized and presented. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used. The analysis was made from primary and secondary data. Multi-stage random sampling method was employed to select respective agro-ecologies, Administrative kebeles, and households. Primary data were gathered using survey questionnaires, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and observation. 150 (107 male, 43 female) households were used for the survey. While secondary data were collected from different published and unpublished materials. Data were analyzed using Household Food Balance Model (HFBM) and descriptive statistics. GIS is also used for mapping the study area. The result of HFBM analysis indicates that 22.7% of the households achieved the daily recommended calorie intake/adult equivalent/ day (2,100 kcal) while, 77.3% of households are found to be below the daily recommended calorie intake. The average calorie intake of the households covers only 56.2%. Based on the household head, female-headed households are found to be more food insecure than their male counterpart. So, the government should exhaustively work on promoting irrigation, providing credit, and subsidizing the farmers in the area of the agricultural sector to solve the problem of food insecurity. Moreover, the government should give due emphasis to female-headed households to empower them economically.

Impact of the closed fishing season policy for sardines in Zamboanga Peninsula, Philippines

This research project represents the Status of Biodiversity and Its Conservation of Kobadak River basin of Maheshpur Upazila. The study was designed to develop a set of information about the present condition of biodiversity of the study area. Both primary and secondary data have been used to fulfill the survey successfully. Primary data have been collected from focused group discussion, key informant interview and secondary data have been collected from journals, books, websites etc. and maps have been collected from websites. The significant importance of this survey is to conduct with a view to expand our knowledge on biodiversity conditions of Kapotakkho River at Maheshpur Upazila, Jhenaidah. Collected data from the study area indicates that the condition of biodiversity of the area is gradually deteriorating. This study also shows that many species is under threat of extinction. The main causes include pollution and contamination, siltation on riverbed, over-exploitation, and lack of awareness and also include lack of government initiatives and effective steps from NGOs. So, government initiative must be taken to protect biodiversity and maintain environmental balance. This study would help understand the present situation of the study area.

The Waata community is among the indigenous Kenyan communities whose social, political, and economic organization has not been adequately studied. The objective of the study was to examine the impact of colonial policies on the history of the Waata people of Kilifi County in the period 1895-1963. The study was guided by the cultural interaction and identity formation theory. The study was conducted using the descriptive research design which offered a chronology of events as they unfolded over time. A qualitative approach was significant because it allowed an in-depth collection of data to ascertain the attitudes, feelings, and opinions concerning the theme under study. The study site was Kilifi County. The study targeted both males and females above 18 years within Kilifi County who were knowledgeable about the existence of the Waata people. Purposive and snowballing sampling techniques were used to select the sample for the study. One hundred and twenty-two participants were interviewed. The study used both primary and secondary data. Primary data was derived from the one-on-one interaction with participants using interview schedules and Key Informant Interviews, oral interviews, and focus group discussions. Question guides and questionnaires with open-ended responses were also used. Secondary data was obtained from critical analysis of books, articles, papers, thesis, and dissertations. Additionally, archival sources, particularly colonial documents, annual reports, correspondents, letters, diaries, and political record books related to the area under study were consulted. The findings of the study revealed that colonial policies impacted significantly on the history of the Waata forcing them to adapt to different lifestyles in order to survive cultural extinction. This adaptation was informed by the colonial labelling of traditional hunting communities like the Waata as poachers and the progressive government efforts to stop them from their traditional source of livelihood as well as their eviction from their indigenous habitats and creation of National Parks.

Tourism is viewed as a tool for poverty alleviation, economic diversification and regeneration, multilateral integration and peace, post-conflict stability, and socio-economic recovery in many post-conflict nations. Urban tourism is one of the forms that has emphasized the importance of supporting urban sustainability while considering all of the city's dynamic change processes, such as natural resource protection, culture, architecture, and environmental management. The purpose of this study is to assess the issues and challenges that confront urban tourism development and to make recommendations for developing sustainable urban tourism in Jaffna City. This study incorporated both primary and secondary data. Direct field observation, structured questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews were used to collect the necessary primary data. Secondary data was gathered from authorized statistical reports. The collected data was analyzed using descriptive statistical methods, and a SWOT analysis was performed to determine Jaffna's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to sustainable urban tourism development. The maps for the study were created using the ArcGIS 10.4 software. According to the study's findings, ineffective green environmental protection systems, inadequate infrastructure facilities, a lack of industrial professionalism, cultural barriers to tourism promotion, ineffective marketing promotional strategies, a lack of institutional coordination, and a lack of tourist product diversification are the factors posing challenges to Jaffna city's sustainable urban tourism development. Based on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of Jaffna's urban tourism development, this study provided recommendations for sustainable tourism development that will assist different stakeholders in rethinking Jaffna's urban tourism in a sustainable manner.

This study aimed to assess loan repayment performance of Awash saving and credit cooperatives union, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. This study is delimited to loan repayment performance and loan repayment trends of Awash saving and credit cooperative union of the last ten consecutive years (2010-2019 GC). Descriptive research design was used in this study. Moreover, both quantitative and qualitative research approaches were used for triangulation purpose. Both primary and secondary data were used to address the desired research objectives. Primary data were collected through focus group discussion (FGD) and key informant interviews (KII). Whereas secondary data were obtained from annual audited financial statement of the union. The collected data were analyzed using both descriptive and linear regression analysis accordingly. The study result indicates that, though the loan performance of the union improving year after year in the study period, disparity of the amount loan planned, amount distributed and amount collected becoming wider and wider starting from 2015 G.C. Moreover, the researchers conclude that, institutional factors (lack of qualified and adequate man power) members’ factors (lack of business know how and low income) and external factors (political instability) are major hindering factors that are affecting loan repayment performance of the members. To overcome these problems, adequate and competent cooperative professional employee should be recruited for loan supervision and collections and regular training should be given for the members on credit usage and repayment.