Abstract
Macronutrient intake is important in the prevention and management of metabolic syndrome (MetS). This study aimed to evaluate total energy and macronutrient intake of participants diagnosed with MetS at recruitment of the health examinees (HEXA) cohort, considering the plant and animal sources of each macronutrient. We included 130,423 participants aged 40–69 years for analysis. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated to evaluate the intake of macronutrients stratified by gender. Energy and macronutrient intake were estimated by linking food frequency questionnaire data to the Korean food composition database, and were calculated separately for plant and animal foods. Low energy (men: OR = 0.95, 95% CI: 0.92–0.98; women: OR = 0.97, 95% CI: 0.95–0.99), and fat intake (men: OR = 0.93, 95% CI: 0.90–0.96; women: OR = 0.80, 95% CI: 0.77–0.83) were observed. Only postmenopausal women had lower intake of total energy (OR = 0.95, 95% CI: 0.92–0.97), whereas low fat intake was observed in all women (OR = 0.80, 95% CI: 0.77–0.83). For carbohydrate intake, the OR were 1.14 (95% CI: 1.08–1.22) and 1.17 (95% CI: 1.08–1.27) among women in their 50s and 60s, respectively. Protein intake was low (OR = 0.90, 95% CI: 0.86–0.95; and OR = 0.88, 95% CI: 0.82–0.94) among women in their 50s and 60s, respectively. High intake of plant carbohydrates in women (OR = 1.16, 95% CI: 1.12–1.20), and plant protein in both genders (OR = 1.09, 95% CI: 1.05–1.13) were observed, but low intake of total energy, fat, and animal-source carbohydrates in both genders was also observed. Fat intake was low regardless of food source. In conclusion, high consumption of plant-source macronutrients, and low consumption of animal-source macronutrients was observed in Korean adults diagnosed with MetS. Attention should be directed to plant sources of carbohydrates and proteins when designing population interventions for metabolic syndrome reduction in Korea.
Highlights
Interconnected risk factors of metabolic syndrome (MetS), such as abdominal obesity, atherogenic dyslipidemia, raised blood pressure, and insulin resistance, increase the risk of coronary heart disease, other cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) [1,2,3]
Both men and women diagnosed with MetS were significantly older, and had higher body mass index (BMI) compared to controls
Current drinking was more frequent among men with MetS (OR = 1.09, 95% confidence intervals (CI): 1.03–1.16)
Summary
Interconnected risk factors of metabolic syndrome (MetS), such as abdominal obesity, atherogenic dyslipidemia, raised blood pressure, and insulin resistance, increase the risk of coronary heart disease, other cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) [1,2,3]. MetS has a high prevalence in many countries [6,7], and it has gradually increased in Korea over the last 10 years [8,9]. The etiology of MetS is unclear, various factors, such as genetics, metabolism, the environment, and diet, may contribute to its development [10]. A recent review highlighted a possible interconnection between gut microbial dysfunction, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and colonic diverticulosis as possible underlying risk factors of MetS [11]. Previous studies reported conflicting results on the association between macronutrient intake and the risk of MetS according to gender, geographical location, and food sources [13,14,15]
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