Low-temperature deformation in calcite veins of SAFOD core samples (San Andreas Fault) — Microstructural analysis and implications for fault rheology

Abstract

The microstructures of four core samples from the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) were investigated with optical and transmission electron microscopy. These samples, consisting of sandstone, siltstone, and fault gouge from phase III of the drilling campaign (3141–3307 m MD), show a complex composition of quartz, feldspar, clays, and amorphous material. Microstructures indicate intense shearing and dissolution–precipitation as main deformation processes. The samples also contain abundant veins filled with calcite. Within the inspected veins the calcite grains exhibit different degrees of deformation with evidence for twinning and crystal plasticity. Dislocation densities (ranging from ≈ 3 · 10 12 m − 2 to ≈ 3 · 10 13 m − 2 ) and twin line densities (≈ 22 mm − 1 –165 mm − 1 ) are used as paleo-piezometers. The corresponding estimates of differential stresses vary between 33 and 132 MPa, deduced from dislocation density and 92–251 MPa obtained from twin density, possibly reflecting chronologically different maximum stress states and/or grain scale stress perturbations. Mean values of stress estimates are 68 ± 46 MPa and 168 ± 60 MPa, respectively, where estimates from dislocation density may represent a lower bound and those from twin density an upper bound. The stress estimates are also compatible with residual lattice strains determined with microfocus Laue diffraction yielding equivalent stresses of 50–300 MPa in twinned calcite. The lower stress bound agrees with stress estimates from borehole breakout measurements performed in the pilot hole. From these data and assuming hydrostatic pore pressure and a low intermediate principal stress close to the overburden stress, frictional sliding of the San Andreas Fault at the SAFOD site is constrained to friction coefficients between 0.24 and 0.31. These low friction values may be related to the presence of clays, talc, and amorphous phases found in the fault cores and support the hypothesis of a weak San Andreas Fault.