Long-term exposure of marine mussels to paracetamol: is time a healer or a killer?

Wulan Koagouw,Nicolas A Stewart,Corina Ciocan

doi:10.1007/s11356-021-14136-6

Abstract

Pharmaceuticals pose a major threat to the marine environment, and several studies have recently described their negative effects on marine organisms. Pharmaceutical compounds are constantly being released into aquatic ecosystems, and chronic exposure, even at low concentrations, may have a major impact on marine organisms. The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the biological changes induced by one of the most widely used pharmaceuticals—paracetamol—in the blue mussel Mytilus edulis, after a long-term exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations. We present our data alongside and in comparison with results from a previous short-term exposure, to demonstrate the significance of exposure period on the effects of paracetamol in adult blue mussels. After 24 days of laboratory exposure, seven potential target genes were selected to examine toxicological effects in mussels’ gonads and possible disruptive effects on reproductive processes. The results show the modulation of some important reproduction-related genes: estrogen receptor-2 (ER2), vitelline envelope zona pellucida domain-9 (V9), and vitellogenin (VTG). Variations in mRNA expression of four other genes involved in apoptosis (HSP70, CASP8, BCL2, and FAS) are also highlighted. Histopathological alterations caused by paracetamol, together with neutral red retention time response in mussels’ hemocytes, are presented herein. Overall, this study highlights the exacerbated effects of low concentration of paracetamol after chronic exposure, similar to the damage induced by higher concentrations in a short exposure scenario, thus emphasizing the importance of length of exposure period when studying the effects of this substance. Additionally, this study also discusses the potential of paracetamol to inflict several major changes in the reproductive system of mussels and thus possibly affect the survival of populations.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11356-021-14136-6.

Highlights

Responsible Editor: Cinta PorteGlobal consumption of pharmaceutical products, prescribed or over the counter, is projected to rise in the coming years (Fabbri and Franzellitti 2016; aus der Beek et al 2016)
This study explores the impact of paracetamol on the gonads of marine mussels Mytilus edulis after a long-term exposure and discusses the potential reproductive challenges that may arise
The results presented here indicate that longer exposure to low concentration of paracetamol has the potential to inflict the same level of biological responses as brief exposures to high concentrations

Summary

Introduction

Responsible Editor: Cinta PorteGlobal consumption of pharmaceutical products, prescribed or over the counter, is projected to rise in the coming years (Fabbri and Franzellitti 2016; aus der Beek et al 2016). Paracetamol or acetaminophen is an active ingredient in hundreds of prescriptions and over-the-counter (OTC) medicines (Roberts et al 2016). Paracetamol is used as an analgesic and antipyretic, and there is a significant prevalence for self-medication worldwide (Tariq and Din 2017), especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is sold both as paracetamol only and, in many OTC medicines, is combined with other active ingredients that treat cough, colds, flu, Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:48823–48836 and pain-related conditions (Wood et al 2010). The consumption is set to rise significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic

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