Ülo Matjus fenomenoloogilise mõtlemise teil / Ülo Matjus on the Paths of Phenomenological Thinking

On Human Being:A Dispute between Edith Stein and Martin Heidegger Rafal Kazimierz Wilk (bio) 1. Introduction Edith Stein and Martin Heidegger traveled down separate paths in the same direction. There was much that united them. For example, they had the same teacher, Edmund Husserl, and both of them worked very closely with him. There was also much that divided them. Stein, as a woman and a Jew, was not allowed to lecture at a university. Nor was she allowed to present her thesis so as to gain her habilitation. By way of contrast, Heidegger succeeded as an academic teacher, even during the Nazi period in that he was a member of ruling party (NSDAP). He was appointed to the lofty position of rector at the University of Freiburg. In the same year in which Heidegger delivered his famous rector's address, Stein, because of her origin, was forced to resign from her work as a teacher in Münster.1 In fact, Stein was humiliated by Heidegger. She was encouraged by her habilitation director, Eugene Fink, to seek academic help from Heidegger. Initially Heidegger was friendly and offered encouragement. But then, on Stein's view, he said that it would be impractical for him to continue to help her and that she should seek help elsewhere.2 [End Page 104] Heidegger's arrogant attitude toward Stein was also manifested on the occasion of Husserl's seventieth birthday. On this occasion friends of his were preparing a Festschrift, and Stein was invited to contribute. Her dissertation was titled Husserl and Aquinas: A Comparison. Her work, unfortunately, was published in an abridged and reedited version because Heidegger demanded a more "neutral" treatment of the subject matter.3 Another example may be helpful. Stein helped to put in order Husserl's manuscripts. Husserl did not have the time to review the work she had done. This is especially pertinent regarding his text on time-consciousness, "which she recognized as having particular significance for those making comparison with the thought of Bergson and Natorp."4 These pages became the material for Husserl's lecture course on inner time-consciousness. They were prepared for publication by Stein, although Heidegger declared himself to be the editor.5 These are only some of the disturbing examples from the lives of these two philosophers. Quite apart from these personal considerations, there are theoretical connections between the two that deserve attention. For example, what was the conception of human nature found in the two philosophers? That is, what unites and what divides their anthropologies? These are the key questions to be explored in this short article. There are two texts of Stein in which she analyses Heidegger's thought. In the first text (Martin Heidegers Existentialphilosophie) one gets a glimpse of her view of Heidegger's anthropology. In the second text, however, a second level of discussion is found that is much deeper. As J. H. Nota has aptly noted, the very title of this main work of Stein, Endliches und Ewiges Sein: Versuch eines Aufstieges zum Sinn des Seins, shows that it refers to the main book of Heidegger, Sein und Zeit.6 Thus we can say that Stein undertook the task of overcoming the thought of Heidegger, specifically his philosophical anthropology. Any adequate assessment of Heidegger's philosophical anthropology therefore should deal as well with Stein's critique. [End Page 105] 2. An Outline of the Argument regarding Anthropology Time plays a crucial role in human life. Roman Ingarden (a Polish student of Husserl and a friend of Stein) in his essay titled "Man and Time" begins with the words: "We all live in time, and we know it."7 But what is experientially obvious may not be easy to explain. That is, the famous complaint of St. Augustine, that he understands time perfectly unless he is asked to explain it in words, is still valid.8 The time-dependent character of human existence became the foundation for the anthropological research of Stein as well as Heidegger. Time is radically important because it is a determinant of a human's conscious being. As Stein notes, once one becomes conscious that he or she is a certain...

This article is motivated by two important anniversaries: in the autumn of 2014, 25 years passed since the specialty of sociology was started to be taught at the University of Tartu; on 23 December 2015 Paul Kenkmann (1945–2001), the establisher of the specialty and the first Full Professor of Sociology at the University of Tartu would have turned 70. The precursor of social sciences was taught at the University of Tartu already in the 19 th century. Professor of Theology in 1856–1890, Alexander von Oettingen (1827–1905), published his monograph Die Moralstatistik und ihre Bedeutung fur eine Sozialethik in 1868. Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932), the Nobel Prize winner in chemistry in 1909 who had studied and taught chemistry in Tartu in 1872–1882, published Energetische Grundlagen der Kulturwissenschaft in 1909 in Leipzig and he envisioned the founding principles of sociology from the viewpoint of energetics. In the period of 1920–1940 several scholars from the University of Tartu published studies in Estonian within the field of sociology, e.g., Hans Kruus (1891–1976) published “City and Village in Estonia” (1920); Eduard Tenmann (1878–1936) “Religion and Economy” (1938); and Alfred Koort (1901–1956), Rector of the University of Tartu in 1944–1951, wrote articles on Max Weber in the 1930s. In 1937–1939 Ilmar Tonisson (1911–1939), Master of Philosophy, studied sociology and social psychology at the London School of Economics and Political Science where he wrote his PhD thesis “Theories of Historical Causation”. He held a series of lectures on sociology-related topics at the Folk University of Tartu in 1936–1937, and applied for a permission to hold lecture courses in sociology at the University of Tartu in 1939, but was declined. In Soviet Estonia, empirical sociological studies were only allowed to be conducted by the authorities as late as in the 1960s, after the Khrushchev Thaw. In 1966 Ulo Vooglaid established the first sociological laboratory at the then State University of Tartu; sociological seminars were held near Tartu at Kaariku in 1966–1969; and Vladimir Yadov’s textbook on the methodology of sociological research was published in Tartu in 1968. It became possible for students to take courses in sociological subjects according to individual study plans. One of such students was Paul Kenkmann, student of history in 1964–1970. His diploma thesis, written in Russian under the supervision of Rem Blum, was titled “Marxism and the Problem of the Socialisation of Personality”. Kenkmann started his academic career at the State University of Tartu in 1972, and became an associate professor in 1980. In 1984 he was appointed the Head of the Department of Sociology, which had been established one year before as a consortium of five sociological research laboratories. Kenkmann continued his studies under the supervision of the pioneering Soviet sociologist Vladimir Shubkin. He defended his doctoral dissertation in Moscow in 1986, and became a part-time professor at the Department of Philosophy in June 1987. He was appointed Part-time Professor of Sociology in October 1989, and was elected to the position of Full Professor in Practical Sociology in June 1992. The first 18 students of sociology were admitted to the Faculty of History on 1 September 1989; the second class (16 students) started two years later. In the course of 25 years, a number of structural reforms in the university occurred, bringing about considerable changes in the curricula, including a longer and more versatile list of specialty subjects; the omission of foreign languages; and the more casual covering of other social science disciplines, not to mention humanities.

Tekhne, or techne, is derived from the Greek term technê, meaning art, craft, technique, or skill, and plays an important role in Ancient Greek philosophy (in, for instance, Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle) where it is most often opposed to epistêmê, meaning knowledge. The legacy of the various Greek philosophical negotiations with, and distinctions between, technê and epistêmê leave a lasting mark on European thought and knowledge from the medieval period through to the early modern period and into modern philosophy from Emmanuel Kant onwards up to and including 20th-century phenomenology (Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger) and its subsequent legacy, particularly in French philosophy. So, for instance, in Plato’s Protagoras, the myth of Epimetheus and Prometheus describes the latter’s theft of the technê of fire as a result of the former’s forgetfulness with regard to the bestowal of attributes to human beings. Here technê emerges as skill or technique but also as a more general founding moment of humankind’s technical and technological capacities. In The Republic Plato opposes the knowledge of reality and truth (of ideal forms) to the representational status of dramatic poetry (as a technê poietike or productive technique) and by extension to arts and literature in general. In this context the latter have a degraded status in relation to knowledge or truth, and this sets the stage for attempts that will be made by later philosophy to distance itself from aesthetic form or literary discourse. In Aristotle technê emerges within the distinction between art as productive technique and theoretical knowledge on the one hand (theoria) and action on the other (praxis). Aristotle’s distinctions have an influential afterlife in the medieval period and into the early modern, in particular in Emmanuel Kant’s definition of art as a skill or capacity for the production of things. The legacy of this long negotiation of Greek technê as art, productive technique, technical skill, or technology finds its way into 20th-century German phenomenology; in Edmund Husserl’s account of the rise of the scientific worldview and instrumental rationality in The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology (1938) and in Martin Heidegger’s discourse on technological modernity, art, and the philosophical-poetic saying of being as it is developed from the 1930s onwards. The legacy of German phenomenological thinking relating to tekhne, understood as a fundamental dimension of both artistic and technological production, has a particularly strong afterlife in post–World War II French structuralism, poststructuralism, and contemporary philosophy. The influence of Husserl’s understanding of technicity can be traced directly in various ways into the work of, for instance, Jean-François Lyotard, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Derrida. Similarly, both Husserlian and Heideggerian discourse on tekhne find their way in the thinking of technology, ecotechnicity, and technics of contemporary philosophers such as Jean-Luc Nancy. Nancy’s discourse on the technicity of art yields an affirmation of the irreducible plurality of aesthetic techniques and, in particular, a reorientation of possible ways of understanding the place of literature in the age of digital information technology.

From her early years, Edith Stein gave promise of becoming a philosopher. Always asking the why of all that happened in her world, she was never satisfied with the ready answers prevalent in her religious and social milieu. Later her university studies at Breslau generated the intense interest in philosophy which led her to the universities of Göttingen and Freiburg-im-Breisgau to study phenomenology under Edmund Husserl, in company with the famous scholars who engaged him in discussion and dialogue: Adolf Reinach, Fritz Kaufmann, Roman Ingarden, Theodor and Hedwig Conrad-Martius, and Martin Heidegger, to recall only a few. As Husserl’s assistant at Freiburg, she transcribed and edited his voluminous works and prepared students for his classes. In this period her own philosophy was taking form which was basically phenomenological but often at variance with her master’s views in substance, if not in spirit.

Reviewed by: Martin Heidegger, Hölderlin’s Hymn “Remembrance by Martin Heidegger Véronique M. Fóti (bio) Martin Heidegger. Martin Heidegger, Hölderlin’s Hymn “Remembrance,” translated by William McNeill and Julia Ireland Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2018. 210 pages. Heidegger devoted three lecture courses, over a span of some seven years, to Hölderlin’s hymnic poetry, offering his course on Remembrance [Andenken] in the winter semester of 1941/42. His intensive and sustained engagement with Hölderlin, beginning in the early 1930’s (and thus near the conclusion of his rectorship at Freiburg University under Nazi auspices), attests to the profound impact that his encounter with Hölderlin’s poetry had on his thought—an impact still urgently in need of interpretation. Indications are that Remembrance held special importance for him. Furthermore, its exegesis in the lecture course was followed, in 1945, by the essay “Andenken” [“Remembrance”], which came to form part of his Elucidations to Hölderlin’s Poetry.” 1 One is grateful to McNeill and Ireland for their scholarly and thoughtful translation, which opens up the lecture course to Anglophone readers and which is also helpful for Anglophones seeking to participate in a needed comparative reading of both lecture course and essay. McNeill and Ireland follow the translation with an Epilogue, Translators’ Notes, and a German/English and English/German Glossary, which makes for terminological consistency. There is no index, and its absence is regrettable, but it may be a concession to Heidegger’s personal aversion to scholarly apparatus. McNeill and Ireland translate the German dichten, which verbally expresses what a poet does (and which does not figure in the Glossary) with the neologism “to poetize,” which serves also (according to the Glossary) to translate Dichtung, which is generally translated as “poetry” but has a wider scope. Although it is difficult to suggest an alternative translation, (other than perhaps leaving dichten explicated but untranslated, given that English lacks an equivalent verb), “to poetize” is problematic. It inappropriately suggests a secondary activity carried out with the materials of language, whereas Heidegger holds that dichten and Dichtung characterize the originary character of language which, moreover, enables the poetic dwelling of mortals upon the earth. [End Page 795] In contrast to the essay “Remembrance,”2 which is densely argued and brings into focus Heidegger’s, by this date, key concern with essential historicity (Seinsgeschichte), leading him to interlace the poet’s diction with his own articulation, the lecture course is, though similarly focused, more wide-ranging and also more defensive or tentative. It prominently addresses questions of language and of the perils of inadequate bases for interpretation. It also includes, besides discussions of Hölderlin’s two important letters to Casimir Ulrich von Böhlendorff, framing his 1801/02 journey to Bordeaux, consideration of Sophocles and Pindar (both of whom Hölderlin translated). One discerns in the lecture course Heidegger’s striving to articulate, in dialogue with Hölderlin, what was truly at issue for him, treating Hölderin’s Dichtung as preparatory for (but not equivalent to) his own task of thinking. In the poem’s first two strophes, Heidegger focuses, in the lecture course, on the reciprocities and distances involved in greeting, and on an essential (if esoteric) understanding of holidays and festivity. In particular, he highlights how holidays (or “days of celebration”) call attention to the sheer “miracle” of being (often written in the pre-contemporary spelling of Seyn, which Hölderlin still used quite naturally), rather than non-being, as well as of the arising of world-configurations. The festivity (Fest) thus prepared for reveals itself as the essentiality (Wesen) of history (section 27:2). Hölderlin’s poetic articulation anticipates and guides, for Heidegger, his own understanding of Seinsgeschichte. He finds an important basis in Hölderlin’s “Empedocles complex” (three fragmentary tragedies and a corpus of theoretical essays, dating roughly to the last three years of the 18th century), in which the poet reasons that the free use of a culture’s ownmost gift (which is, for Hesperia or the West, the clarity of presentation) must laboriously be acquired through an immersion into what is alien, (such as the Greek “fire...

From the time of his earliest phenomenological writings, Edmund Husserl took the task of grounding the natural and human sciences to be one of his leading missions. While opposition to naturalism and psychologism spurred his thinking, this in no way implied an anti-scientific strand in his philosophy. Rather, Husserl felt that the sciences fell into incoherence when they attempted to understand themselves in terms of their own positi vity such that they failed to bring out the issue of meaningconstitution which is sine qua non of their very existence. Whether it be through the notion of intentionality simpliciter or the notion of lifeworld, Husserl's whole philosophic career can be seen as the attempt to mine the origins of the production of scientific knowing. In the context of this attempt, Husserl's phenomenological reduction is to be understood as seeking to trace and lay bare the constituting sources that make the scientific endeavor meaningful such as will provide science and scientists with coherent sense of the true import of their endeavors. As such, while Husserl certainly understood his phenomenological insights as relativizing (by grounding) the mundane sciences, he also understood this relativization as heralding new Enlightenment that was as much for the benefit of scientists as philosophers. Husserl's faith in the capacity of phenomenological insight to enter and positively transform the mundane sphere was not one shared by all of his followers however.1 In what follows, I wish to explore this matter in relation to the treatment of the phenomenological reduction in me thought of Eugen Fink and Martin Heidegger. On the face of it, there could not be two more different interpretations of the phenomenological reduction than those found in Fink's Sixth Cartesian Meditation2 on the one hand and Heidegger's Sein und Zeit,3 on the orner. While Fink claims that thorough unfolding of the reduction leads back to region of pre-being (Vor-sein) in which all human possibilities, including those of knowing and speaking, are ultimately constituted, Heidegger insists that, at bottom, me reduction discloses Dasein's Being-in-the-world as the ground behind which it is impossible to inquire. Thus, while Heidegger insists mat the performance of the reduction must ultimately be understood as human possibility, Fink wants to claim that the entire sphere of human possibilities and all concern with the meaning of being is to be understood against the horizon of the pre-being to which transcendental subjectivity ultimately refers. And yet, I would suggest that there is at least one point of contact between Heidegger and Fink which has to do with the capacity for communication between the phenomenological and mundane spheres. I will argue that while Heidegger in no way wishes to endorse Fink's radical break between the transcendental and mundane spheres - in fact he attempts precisely to bring them closer to one another by avoiding all talk of constituting ego pole - his version of me reduction as explored in the phenomenon of anxiety leads to disruption in which the insights garnered from the transcendental sphere struggle to be heard in the sphere of mundane existing. Phenomenological Reduction and the Split in Transcendental Life Let us begin with brief consideration of Fink's text and its implications for continuity between the transcendental and mundane spheres. The Sixth Cartesian Meditation was written as part of much greater co-operative project between Fink and Husserl in which tiie Cartesian Meditations, delivered as lectures in Paris in 1929, were to be reworked as more comprehensive introduction to Husserlian phenomenology.4 The text itself, described as a sketch of transcendental theory of method sets itself the task of bringing to light problems that are latent in Husserl's (SCM 1). Specifically, Fink is after the development of phenomenology of (SCM 8) as an investigation into the horizon against which the very activity of phenomenologizing is to be understood. …

At the end of the nineteenth century my great-grandparents emigrated from Vilnius, Lithuania, to Great Britain, primarily to escape persecution. It was therefore an emotional occasion for me when I visited Vilnius in the summer of 1999. I stayed in the city of Kaunas and viewed the monument to those who died in the concentration camp on the outskirts of the town during the Second World War. It was also my privilege to visit Estonia in October 1999 to attend a conference on 'Law, Religion and Democratic Society' at the University of Tartu and to meet government and religious representatives from all three Baltic states. As a lawyer with a keen interest in religious freedom, especially in the Baltic states, I have written this article in an attempt to clarify what the minimum standards of religious freedom are as promulgated in international law and to ascertain to what extent the Baltic states are meeting those standards. The Baltic states are emerging from many years of totalitarian oppression. They have the difficult task of drafting and implementing laws which will guarantee fundamental rights and freedoms whilst striving to preserve their respective cultures. Difficulties tend to arise with regard to laws relating to religious freedom, in particular in the context of avoiding potential religious and ethnic conflicts. As I shall show later, the Baltic states have introduced legal provisions on freedom of religion analogous to those granted under the European Convention on Human Rights. In this article I discuss the implications of the European Convention on Human Rights as far as the recognition, registration and tax exemption of religions and religious associations are concerned. I shall show that some countries in Central and Southern Europe, including some which are members of the European Union (EU), are abusing the rights of religious minorities by imposing arbitrary and discriminatory registration and recognition requirements. I shall also show that some other EU countries appear to be consistently breaching the European Convention with regard to the legal status of religious minorities and the rights of individual members of such minorities, despite the fact that these countries also guarantee freedom of religion. I shall discuss the current situation and future prospects in the Baltic states in this wider European context.

When teaching at Freiburg from 1915–1923, Martin Heidegger often incorporated the theme of phenomenology in the titles of his lecture courses. But he was anything but an orthodox phenomenologist. Heidegger made it clear that the alternative posed by Edmund Husserl between phenomenological philosophy as a universal rigorous science (strenge Wissenschaft) and philosophy as a worldview (Weltanschauung) was not the right one. Phenomenology should not be conceived as a science producing timeless theoretical truths nor should philosophers be in the business of formulating a worldview to suit the relative historical needs of their own age. Husserl had used the term “worldview-philosophy” to attack Wilhelm Dilthey and his school for being relativistic. Heidegger, however, defended Dilthey’s philosophy of the human sciences (Geisteswissenchaften) and its understanding of worldviews as being much more incisive than that and as path-breaking for a genuine phenomenology.

With a new foreword by Dermot Moran ‘the work here presented seeks to found a new science – though, indeed, the whole course of philosophical development since Descartes has been preparing the way for it – a science covering a new field of experience, exclusively its own, that of "Transcendental Subjectivity"’ - Edmund Husserl, from the author’s preface to the English Edition Widely regarded as the principal founder of phenomenology, one of the most important movements in twentieth century philosophy, Edmund Husserl’s Ideas is one of his most important works and a classic of twentieth century thought. This Routledge Classics edition of the original translation by W.R. Boyce Gibson includes the introduction to the English edition written by Husserl himself in 1931. Husserl’s early thought conceived of phenomenology – the general study of what appears to conscious experience – in a relatively narrow way, mainly in relation to problems in logic and the theory of knowledge. The publication of Ideas in 1913 witnessed a significant and controversial widening of Husserl’s thought, changing the course of phenomenology decisively. Husserl argued that phenomenology was the study of the very nature of what it is to think, "the science of the essence of consciousness" itself. Husserl’s arguments ignited a heated debate regarding the nature of consciousness and experience that has endured throughout the twentieth and continues in the present day. No understanding of twentieth century philosophy is complete without some understanding of Husserl, and his work influenced some of the great philosophers of the twentieth century, such as Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre.

The philosophical and aesthetic ideas of phenomenology have been present in cinema theory since the silent period. Methods of phenomenological theory can be found in the analysis of the visual aspects of films or the artistic style of their authors. The essay analyses signs of phenomenological thinking in the audiovisual aspects of films - a little studied but significant area of directorial aesthetics. Its theoretical and methodological foundation includes the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and elements of phenomenological aesthetics in the works of Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Roman Ingarden. Taking the work of a significant representative of auteur cinema, the Austrian director Michael Haneke, the author explores cinematic variations of the concept of phenomenological reduction, the method of perfectly clear apprehension of the essence and the layered semantic structure of the film. Conclusions are drawn about the presence of typological signs of phenomenological thinking in the work of other filmmakers, such as Robert Bresson and Jean-Pierre and Luc Dardenne. Visually, this presence is expressed in the tendency towards asceticism and documentarism in the choice of artistic devices; towards the disclosure of cinematic phenomena (facts); and aurally, in the tendency to minimize off-screen music and get rid of the expressiveness in the actor's speech, towards greater semantic significance of intra-frame music, individual sounds, pauses and non-sounds.

International Conference on Functional Materials and Nanotechnologies (FM&NT2012)

The introduction of MiC (Metrology in Chemistry) into the Chemistry Curriculum at the University of Tartu using a two-stage approach is described. As the first stage the topics of MiC are first touched at the beginning of the first analytical chemistry lecture course in the 3rd semester. The emphasis there is on the measurement uncertainty (MU) and its practical estimation (based on the ISO GUM approach). The main purpose of this is to make it clear from the beginning that MU is an integral part of any measurement and to enable the students to estimate MU in the laboratory courses of analytical chemistry (3rd and 4th semesters). As the second stage, MiC is treated in more detail in a dedicated course where also topics, such as reference materials, interlaboratory comparisons, standardization, quality management, accreditation, etc are covered.

The 29th Baltic Criminological Seminar, organised by the Faculty of Law of the University of Tartu, took place in Tallinn on 16–18 June 2016. This year, the seminar celebrates its 30th year, continuing a tradition begun in 1987 by what was then the Laboratory of the Sociology of Deviant Behaviour at the University of Tartu. The series of annual criminological seminars was initiated by our close colleague Dr Eduard Raska (1944–2008), who was director of the laboratory at that time. Originally, the event brought together social scientists from the Baltic States, Saint Petersburg, and Moscow in efforts to create an alternative, even competing, paradigm to that of Soviet orthodox criminology. Later, the seminar expanded in scope, and it now draws international participants from not only the Baltic region but all over the world. The Baltic Criminological Seminar has become a scientific enterprise that is highly valued by specialists in the field of crime research and control as an arena for presentation of novel ideas and approaches. The title of this year’s seminar and collection of papers, ‘Crime, Culture, and Social Control’, was not chosen arbitrarily. Amidst globalisation and cross-cultural exposure, new forms of crime are emerging that require new means of control. Furthermore, criminology should be able to identify and monitor the social changes, in order to find alternatives to today’s dominant, West-centred approaches. Thirdly, in addition to following this ‘cultural turn’, responsible criminology must deal with new social dangers and harms that are emerging from combinations of criminality, psychopathology, and economic and military factors. Thereby, the ways of the past – positivistic precise categorisation of forms of deviance and their study – can be replaced with a holistic approach that brings synthesis. The articles in this volume of Juridica International address developments and tendencies in crime and crime control in various countries. Some articles offer theoretical investigation of the above-mentioned problems; others present results of empirical research. Most of the journal articles elaborate upon material presented at the seminar, in addition to which there are some authors who could not attend the seminar but were able to contribute to this issue. We would like to thank all the authors and those reviewing and language-editing the articles for their work, which has resulted in a publication of high scientific quality. Finally, we are very thankful to the university’s Faculty of Social Science and School of Law for their financial support for organising the seminar and publishing this volume. The seminar and this issue of Juridica International are further proof, should any be needed, that the University of Tartu is an excellent place for holding international scientific events and meetings for the exchange of ideas and experience in the field of crime control. The tradition of the Baltic Criminological Seminar has stood the test of time, weathering the many changes that the region has experienced over the last 30 years. It is clear that analysis of crime that knows no borders requires ongoing in-depth international scientific co-operation, and with the current issue we aspire to respond to this need.

With a new foreword by Dermot Moran ‘the work here presented seeks to found a new science – though, indeed, whole course of philosophical development since Descartes has been preparing way for it – a science covering a new field of experience, exclusively its own, that of Transcendental Subjectivity’ - Edmund Husserl, from author’s preface to English Edition Widely regarded as principal founder of phenomenology, one of most important movements in twentieth century philosophy, Edmund Husserl’s Ideas is one of his most important works and a classic of twentieth century thought. This Routledge Classics edition of original translation by W.R. Boyce Gibson includes introduction to English edition written by Husserl himself in 1931. Husserl’s early thought conceived of phenomenology – general study of what appears to conscious experience – in a relatively narrow way, mainly in relation to problems in logic and theory of knowledge. The publication of Ideas in 1913 witnessed a significant and controversial widening of Husserl’s thought, changing course of phenomenology decisively. Husserl argued that phenomenology was study of very nature of what it is to think, the science of essence of itself. Husserl’s arguments ignited a heated debate regarding nature of consciousness and experience that has endured throughout twentieth and continues in present day. No understanding of twentieth century philosophy is complete without some understanding of Husserl, and his work influenced some of great philosophers of twentieth century, such as Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre.

Introduction: Estonian Science Studies R. Vihalemm. Part I: Studies in the History and Policy of Science in Estonia. Newton's Principia in the Curricula of the University of Tartu (Dorpat) in the Early 1690-s UE. Lumiste, H. Piirimae. A University Between Two Cultures: On the Development of Tartu/Dorpat University in the 19th and Early 20th Centuries H. Tankler. The Emergence of Physical Chemistry: The Contribution of the University of Tartu V. Past. In Political Draughts Between Science and the Humanities: Geography at the University of Tartu Between the 17th-20th Centuries O. Kurs, E. Tammiksaar. Formation of R&D Policy in a Small Country in a Changing World H. Martinson. Science and Society - Faculties Close or Apart? J. Engelbrecht. Part II: Studies in the General Methodology, History and Philosophy of Science. Some Fundamental Criteria of the Scientific Method and the Internal Structure of Science V. Palm. The Glory and Misery of Modern Science U. Uus. Edmund Husserl Pursuing the Paths of Descartes: The Paris Lectures on Philosophy as a Universal Science UE. Matjus. Herman Boerhaave - Communis Europae Praeceptor: Internal vs. External in the History of Science E. Lohkivi. The Problem of the Relationship Between Human and Physical Realities in Ilya Prigogine's Paradigm of Self-Organisation L. Napinen. Science and Magic: Causality P. Muursepp. Symmetry and Rationality J. Tammaru. Chemistry as an Interesting Subject for the Philosophy of Science R. Vihalemm. Part II: Studies in the Philosophy of Physics. Physical Reality, Theoretical Physics, and Mathematics P. Kuusk. Outsolutions in Physical Theories. PhysicalConsiderations J. Eintalu. What is Time? M. Koiv, P. Kuusk. The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics and Common Sense A. Unt. Part IV: Studies in the Methodology and Philosophy of Special Fields of Research. Knowledge, Human Interests and Migration Studies H. Kulu. Value-Neutral Paternalism V. Parve. Inter-Level Explanation and the Category-Mistake B. Moelder. On the Raising of a Hand J. Kivistik.