Abstract
Lead acetate (AcPb) is an important raw material used in chemical industries worldwide. The potential toxicity of AcPb is generally attributed to the presence of Pb. However, the effect of AcPb on the environment as a whole is still poorly known. This study aimed to evaluate AcPb toxicity on three standard species of soil invertebrates and two plant species using ecotoxicology tests. Three tropical soils (Oxisol, Inceptisol, and Tropical Artificial Soil (TAS)) were contaminated with different concentrations of AcPb and one dose of K-acetate (positive control). These soils were used in tests with Eisenia andrei (earthworm), Folsomia candida (springtail), Enchytraeus crypticus (enchytraeid), Zea mays (maize), and Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean). Dose-response curves obtained in the laboratory tests were used to estimate the EC50 values for each species. Among invertebrates, the highest sensitivity to AcPb was observed for E. crypticus in the TAS (EC50 = 29.8 mg AcPb kg-1), whereas for E. andrei and F. candida the highest sensitivity was observed in the Oxisol (EC50 = 141.9 and 1835 mg AcPb kg-1, respectively). Folsomia candida was the least sensitive invertebrate species to AcPb in all soils. Among plant species, Z. mays was less sensitive (EC50 = 1527.5 mg AcPb kg-1) than P. vulgaris (EC50 = 560.5 mg AcPb kg-1) in the Oxisol. The present study evidenced that the toxicity of AcPb should not be attributed uniquely to the presence of Pb, as the treatment containing uniquely Ac provoked the same toxicity as the highest dose of AcPb.
Highlights
Soil pH was determined using a 1 mol L−1 KCl solution (1:5, w-v; ISO—International Organizations for Standardization 2005), cation exchange capacity (CEC) was calculated by the sum of exchangeable cations and potential acidity according to Teixeira et al (2017), the particle-size analysis was performed using the pipette method (Day 1965), water holding capacity was measured according to ISO 11269-2 (ISO— International Organizations for Standardization 2005), and organic matter content was determined by the potassium pH (KCl) Cation exchange capacity at pH 7 Water holding capacity (%) Organic matter (%) Texture clay (%) Silt (%) Sand (%) Texture class aValue determined by weighing
The shoot dry matter (SDM) of plants, the percentage of initial biomass of surviving earthworms, and the reproductive output of earthworms, collembolans, and enchytraeids were statistically analyzed by one-way ANOVAs followed by Dunnett’s post hoc test (Dunnett 1955) to test for significance of the difference between the control and the AcPb contaminated soils and AcK control in each test
Since the actual concentrations showed a percentage of nominal concentrations close to 100%, the effective concentrations (EC50 and EC20) were estimated based on the nominal concentrations of AcPb
Summary
Soil pollution is a current worldwide challenge that has direct and/or indirect impacts on human health, food security, environmental quality, provision of ecosystem services, and the economy (FAO 2018). As a raw material in lead–acid batteries, some paints, glazes, leaded glass and ceramics, as well as mining, smelting, refining, and recycling of lead (WHO 2019; Rees and Fuller 2020). When these activities and products/wastes are not properly managed, there is an increased risk of environmental contamination with severe lasting implications
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