Abstract
Neuroimaging studies of subjects with ADHD typically show altered functional connectivity in prefrontal, striatal, and several temporal brain regions. While the majority of studies have focused on connectivity that is averaged over time, we investigated the temporal dynamics of brain network changes in resting-state fMRI. Using the ADHD-200 consortium, we characterized the time course of latent state changes using Hidden Markov Modeling, and compared state changes between boys and girls with ADHD along with typically developing controls. Sex differences were found in latent state switching, with boys dwelling longer in a given state than girls, and concurrently having fewer overall state transitions. These sex differences were found in children with ADHD and in typically developing controls. Children with ADHD were also found to be more variable in terms of state transitions than controls. These findings add to the growing literature on neural sex differences and may be related to the sex difference in focal versus diffuse attention.
Highlights
Data Availability Statement: All resting-state fmri data is available through the Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)-200 Consortium
Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is often used to assess the temporal coherence of activity between multiple brain regions, and we extend this approach by using Hidden Markov Modeling (HMM) to identify latent state changes across sex and for children with and without an ADHD diagnosis
Studies have shown functional connectivity differences, where women exhibited more coherent connectivity in regions overlapping with the default mode network (DMN), and men generally having stronger connectivity in sensorimotor areas [45]
Summary
Data Availability Statement: All resting-state fmri data is available through the ADHD-200 Consortium (http://fcon_1000.projects.nitrc.org/ indi/adhd200/). Registration with the NITRC is required to access the data, but specific membership to the ADHD-200 Consortium is not required. Code, and supplementary materials can be found online at https://osf.io/xqewf/. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) affects at least 5% of children and adolescents [1,2,3,4]. Its primary symptoms include inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity, with associated deficits in self-regulation, executive function, and working memory [1, 5]. Children diagnosed with ADHD often continue to experience these symptoms into adulthood, with about one in seven continuing to meet full diagnostic criteria as adults [6,7]. The practical consequences of ADHD are reflected in social and academic difficulties for children [8,9,10], as well as social and employment issues for adults [11]
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