Integrated Policy and Planning for Water and Energy

Triangle of Environment, Water and Energy: A Sociological Appraisal

The demand of water by various competing sectors, such as industry, power, drinking and irrigation, is increasing while the supply of available fresh water remains the same. This calls for efficient use of water in all sectors especially irrigation, which consumes the highest amount of water in India. Due to recurrence of drought and flood India suffered from famine, so after the Independence the government has rigorously pursued the construction of irrigation dams to increase agricultural production and meet the increasing demand of food. Construction of dams was given priority than management of irrigation projects. But due to a large gap between irrigation potential created and irrigation potential utilized, there was a paradigm shift in the irrigation sector. As a result, the concept of participatory irrigation management (PIM) was widely spread through seminars, National Water Policies and specific irrigation Command Area Development (CAD) programme. The first National Water Policy in 1987 and the subsequent policies had provisions for involvement of farmers in irrigation management for efficient use of irrigation water. Many states in India implemented PIM Act under the policy. It also applies to the northeastern region (NE region) of India. This region has a traditional irrigation system such as bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, water conservation among the Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh, zabo system of Nagaland and dong irrigation among the Bodos of Assam which are traditionally managed by the farmers. This article examines the farmers’ participation in irrigation management in the NE region. It attempts to highlight the changes of PIM policies, involvement of farmers or the Water Users’ Associations (WUAs) in irrigation management, constraints and suggest ways to strengthen them for efficient use of irrigation water in the NE region of India.

Ari Michelsen was born on August 10, 1954 in Oslo, Norway to Frances (Blumve) and Arve Michelsen. The family returned to the U.S. to live in Maryland throughout his school years. He received a B.S. in Conservation and Resource Management from the University of Maryland in 1976, followed by his M.S. (1983) in Economics, and Ph.D. (1988) in Agricultural and Resource Economics from Colorado State University, where he was advised by Dr. Robert Young. Michelsen was a nationally and internationally renowned scholar in economics and resource policy. He started his professional career as a consultant on energy. After completing his Ph.D. he worked as faculty and Associate Director at University of Wyoming (1989–1994) and as faculty at Washington State University, Vancouver (1994–1999). In 1999 he joined Texas A&M University as Professor of Agricultural Economics and Resident Director of Texas A&M AgriLife Research Center at El Paso. He specialized in integrated water resources management, valuation, conservation, markets and policy analysis. His research focused on the effectiveness of agricultural and residential water conservation programs, water markets and prices, impacts of endangered species water acquisition programs, regulatory impacts and decision support systems for river basin resource management, and water policy analysis in the U.S., China, and Chile. During his career, he authored or co-authored over 140 publications and technical reports. His research projects not only advanced our knowledge of water resources (drought and flood) in the arid region, but also greatly impacted regional water resources planning and management. Two papers were particularly impactful. “Group Decision Making in Water Resources Management Using Multiple Objective Analysis” (Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 2004) and “Economic Impact of Alternative Policy Responses to Prolonged and Severe Drought in the Rio Grande Basin” (Water Resources Research, 2005) became the most cited papers of his published work, advancing methodology in the Decision Support System analysis. His work on economic assessment of flood control infrastructure and salinity control in the Rio Grande Basin could provide economic benefits of millions of dollars to the community. Moreover, his work on best management practices (BMPs) for water conservation has been used to develop management strategies in Texas regional water plans as well as the state water plan. Ari was selected as the Regent Fellow, the highest honor bestowed upon faculty members by the A&M System. His work had positive impact not only at the institution or agency level, but also at community, state, national, and international levels. Michelsen received the Fellow of American Water Resources Association (AWRA) in recognizing his outstanding professional achievement. A passionate scholar, he advised graduate students, postdoctoral associates, and visiting scholars; many of whom continued their career as academics, while others became successful practitioners in the water resources field. Dr. Michelsen was active in international cooperation. He initiated and led the efforts in U.S.-Mexico Transboundary Aquifer Assessment Program (Public Act Public Law 109–448 enacted in 2006), a joint program of USGS and the Water Resources Research Institutes in Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, to develop scientific knowledge of US-MX bi-national aquifers in those three states. He was frequently invited to participate in international collaborative work. Following are just a few examples of projects in which Ari played a significant role: It is worth noting that several colleagues with whom he worked these projects were elected as Academicians of Chinese Academies of Sciences and Engineering. Ari was invited to participate in the Innovation and Natural Disaster Resiliency for the Biobio Region of Chile, IRDC Workshop and lectures (2010) and Integrated Sustainable Economic-Environmental-Social Development Analysis Framework for Patagonia, Pan American Studies Institute NSF Workshop (2008), EULA, University of Concepcion, Chile. He served as the IWRM Session Coordinator of the 5th World Water Forum (2009). and as Thematic Priority Core Group Chair of the 6th World Water Forum (2010–2012). This forum, the world's biggest water-related event and organized by the World Water Council, aimed “to promote awareness, build political commitment and trigger action on critical water issues at all levels, to facilitate the efficient conservation, protection, development, planning, management and use of water in all its dimensions on an environmentally sustainable basis for the benefit of all life.” As the Resident Director of the El Paso Center he was responsible for strategic planning, research programs, outreach, fiscal affairs, personnel management, and facilities. He was a successful leader, empowering faculty to achieve success in their research programs and providing support for the community by meeting their needs in areas such as sustainable development, economic growth, and heathy ecosystems. He also provided great leadership and outstanding service in national and international professional communities. He served twice as the President of UCOWR and on the Board of Directors, and as the President and on the Board of Directors of AWRA. He loved the UCOWR community, so much so that his whole family often participated in UCOWR conferences and activities. He was proud of his two outstanding daughters: Sonja and Anna. Sonja is following her father's footsteps, working in the water resources field. Ari served in various capacities in numerous local, regional, and state organizations and national professional societies, such as USGS National Water Census Advisory Committee; Texas Economists Board of Directors, Western Regional Research Project; Paso del Norte Watershed Council; New Mexico-Texas Water Commission; and Far West Texas Regional Water Planning Group. In summary, Dr. Ari M. Michelsen was a passionate scholar, dedicated professional leader, and beloved colleague with distinguished achievements in natural resources economics and outstanding contributions to the professional community. His unfinished journey will continue as we advance our knowledge in water resources development and extend our dedicated service to our communities.

The long-term sustainability of many urban water supply systems in the United States is under assault from a confluence of forces. Climate change, an aging and increasingly obsolete water infrastru...

This dissertation examines the impacts of energy and climate policies on the energy and forest sectors, focusing on the case of Finland. The thesis consists of an introduction article and four separate studies. The dissertation was motivated by the climate concern and the increasing demand for renewable energy. In particular, the renewable energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission reduction targets of the European Union were driving this work. In Finland, both forest and energy sectors are in key roles in achieving these targets. In fact, the separation between forest and energy sector is diminishing as the energy sector is utilizing increasing amounts of wood in energy production and as the forest sector is becoming more and more important energy producer. The objective of this dissertation is to find out and measure the impacts of climate and energy policies on the forest and energy sectors. In climate policy, the focus is on emissions trading, and in energy policy the dissertation focuses on the promotion of renewable forestbased energy use. The dissertation relies on empirical numerical models that are based on microeconomic theory. Numerical partial equilibrium mixed complementarity problem models were constructed to study the markets under scrutiny. The separate studies focus on co-firing of wood biomass and fossil fuels, liquid biofuel production in the pulp and paper industry, and the impacts of climate policy on the pulp and paper sector. The dissertation shows that the policies promoting wood-based energy may have unexpected negative impacts. When feed-in tariff is imposed together with emissions trading, in some plants the production of renewable electricity might decrease as the emissions price increases. The dissertation also shows that in liquid biofuel production, investment subsidy may cause high direct policy costs and other negative impacts when compared to other policy instruments. The results of the dissertation also indicate that from the climate mitigation perspective, perfect competition is the favored wood market competition structure, at least if the emissions trading system is not global. In conclusion, this dissertation suggests that when promoting the use of wood biomass in energy production, the favored policy instruments are subsidies that promote directly the renewable energy production (i.e. production subsidy, renewables subsidy or feed-in premium). Also, the policy instrument should be designed to be dependent on the emissions price or on the substitute price. In addition, this dissertation shows that when planning policies to promote wood-based renewable energy, the goals of the policy scheme should be clear before decisions are made on the choice of the policy instruments.

Governments around the globe enact various energy and environmental policies focused on electricity production and consumption, conservation, waste management, water and air pollution, and many others. The public policy approaches to address such issues often lean toward a status quo that favors more powerful actors who sometimes attempt to stifle innovation. This paper reviews the "Punctuated Equilibrium Theory" framework and how it illuminates novel policy changes in an energy and environment context. This paper, entitled, "Punctuating the equilibrium: A lens to understand energy and environmental policy changes," is a unique perspective piece that details a key public policy theory using an energy/environmental lens. The goal of this paper is to outline common attributes of policy change, as highlighted by key terms and interactions. Readers can use this piece to understand and strategize for future energy and environmental policy alterations. Energy policies refer to the suite of governmental actions that address planning, generation, and consumption issues around items such as electricity, transportation, and efficiency. These decisions are sometimes politically contentious, given the complexities and interests from various sides of the stakeholder aisle. Governmental entities often enact various financial incentives, taxation strategies, conservation tactics, and many other policies to best develop solutions for society's energy and environmental future. However, these solutions sometimes require massive shocks to change the historic status quo and bring forth strategies for newer, sustainable energies that have lower environmental and social costs. Many schools of thought illustrate how key events are the stimuli for scientific change innovations toward alternative energy sources. Over the years, the public policy discipline has specifically developed a number of theories to better comprehend changes and these types of governmental decision making processes. Such theoretical frameworks include Rogers' Diffusion of Innovation Theory, Kingdon's Multiple Streams Theory, Lindblom's Incrementalism, and Baumgartner and Jones' Punctuated Equilibrium Theory (PET)1, among others. Downs' Issue-Attention Cycle concept is also relevant as a means to understand the public's attention to an issue and how that stimulates change. Generations of prior scholars have utilized these policy theories in both quantitative and qualitative research. Rogers' Diffusion of Innovation Theory, later termed by scholars as "policy diffusion," is a widely used and relevant approach at framing energy and environmental policy change and adoption. This theory centers on how policies are replicated and spread (ie, best practices) over geographic areas (eg, US states). Rogers categorized different levels of innovation adopters as innovators, early adopters, early majority, later majority, and laggards. Such diffusion of innovation occurs over time, meaning that there are a number of aspects (eg, the media) that can speed or slow diffusion. Kingdon's Multiple Streams approach explains agenda changes through three "streams" of separate, simultaneous activity surge: problems, policies, and politics. Kingdon's explanation of policy change accommodates some elements of rationalism and incrementalism, which relates to Lindblom's framework, which discussed policy change as evolutionary rather than revolutionary (ie, small incremental changes rather than a few substantial changes). Other theories in this realm include Advocacy Coalitions and Choice Awareness Theory, among others. These frameworks and concepts have proven useful in revealing themes for citizen, group, and governmental actions, though their value varies depending on the policy arena and situation. History is perhaps the most important aspect in understanding energy and environmental policy formulation (eg, certain events have triggered policy change or adoption), and Baumgartner and Jones' PET offers the strongest resource for such a historical narrative. Moreover, it provides the most robust set of predefined phrases (eg, bounded rationality, disproportionate attention, framing, policy monopolies, etc) that help describe how change transpires in the complex realm of energy and environmental policy. Overall, PET can be a useful framework due to the historically radical shifts in policy adoption (eg, US state Renewable Portfolio Standards), and the fact that the United States, for instance, may be at the beginning of another radical shift in policy adoption for more renewable energies. This theory also highlights political power and how institutions (and actors, such as electric utilities) often pursue an energy policy status quo (ie, policy punctuation/adoption can happen, but only via the right set of circumstances). This highly vetted theory is both unique and valuable to the study of energy and environmental policy, particularly in industrialized countries. The phrase "punctuated equilibrium" in the public policy sciences was inspired from its original application in the natural sciences to describe dramatic shifts as opposed to incremental progress in evolution. In the discipline of public policy, equilibrium (ie, balance or stability) is the result of dominance within governmental structures in maintaining the status quo. Therefore, punctuation refers to an actual public policy change or shift using data or viewpoints to alter the decisions of policymakers. In Agendas and Instability in American Politics, scholars Frank Baumgartner and Bryan Jones developed PET as a framework to comprehend policy stability and change. They argued that long periods of policy stability, supplemented by short periods of intense change, can be explained by the important interaction of "policy images" with "policy venues." The concept of "policy images" refers to how policies are discussed and understood by the public and policy elites/experts (ie, they refer to the various perspectives one may have on a public policy issue). In contrast, "policy venues" refer to the establishments that literally make public policy decisions, such as state legislatures on renewable energy incentives. Since public policies affect individuals in dissimilar ways, the public holds diverse images, both positive and negative, of the same policy. In other words, there are various ways in which a policy is understood and discussed. As part of this process, the concept of framing helps explain the way such policy images can be arranged to make them appear technical and relevant only to experts, or linked to wider social values to heighten participation. For instance, to draw interest in the United States, persons often link ideas to the widely accepted values of independence, patriotism, and economic growth. As part of the policy image development, framing is "a mixture of empirical information and emotive appeals."2 Most public policy issues are multifaceted and, therefore, can command a wide range of policy images. For instance, energy policy can be framed in terms of public health, nuisances (eg, wind farm noise or shadow flicker), employment, taxation, the role of corporations, civil liberties, and human rights, among many others. Nevertheless, while there exist various ways to frame the same problem, there is also limited time and vitality to devote to issues. Consequently, highly complex matters are often simplified, with very few issues focused on at any one time at the expense of all the rest. Conversely, policy venues are sets of governmental institutions or actors where authoritative decisions over policy are made. Relevant examples of policy venues include the federal executive branch (in the United States), Congress (United States)/Parliament (United Kingdom), courts, and lower levels of government such as state/province and local jurisdictions. Baumgartner and Jones argue that changes in a policy image can produce changes in policy venue and, reciprocally, venue changes can facilitate image changes. The interaction between venues and images may result in long periods of stability or, in some cases, short periods of intense change. An illustration of an image and venue interaction is the case of the National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA), which was enacted in 1969 in the United States. Around that time, there was a growing concern for nuclear energy technologies by the greater citizenry as a byproduct of World War II, with nuclear anxieties further continuing into the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s.3 Environmental groups were particularly concerned about nuclear power and the regulatory decisions made by the US federal government, and so they appealed to previously uninvolved members of Congress. Congress became more sympathetic to this new image of environmental policy and passed legislation to regulate business and help develop the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which was more consistent with the new policy image. This image was advanced in public opinion by the nuclear power plant accident at the Three Mile Island, as many lost confidence in the nuclear industry.4 In essence, persistent opposition by the environmental groups, as well as a key triggering/focusing event, shifted the policy image of nuclear power from a positive one to an overwhelmingly negative one, causing policy and programmatic changes. These changes snowballed into other developments. For instance, in 1977, the US Department of Energy formed as an agency focused on energy and environmental policies and safety in handling nuclear materials.5 In 1986, an event in the Soviet Union at Chernobyl also led to the relative decline of the nuclear power industry and these changing policy images. Consequently, the 1980s and 1990s saw an increased focus, both through policies and programs, on renewable energy technologies such as hydrogen, solar, and wind. The Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989 added to the increasing image shifts from nuclear and fossil fuel technologies toward the increased exploration of alternative energy sources and more stringent environmental policies.6 Taken as a whole, the past 40 to 50 years in US energy and environmental policy have seen dramatic shifts in attention and policy image emotions, stimulating intense changes. Often, crises such as environmental disasters serve as a triggering event, focusing media, government, and public attention to an issue previously lower (or non-existent) on the policy agenda. Such triggering or focusing events may also act as dramatic symbols of problems that are already rising to greater attention. This inclination to give disproportionate attention to disasters over more routine events allows an opportunity for activists to push forth their long-standing demands. Sometimes, these parties label problems as a crisis "to elevate a concern when facing an environment overloaded with competing claims."7 Venue shopping is the phrase and strategy used to describe this situation of policy images and the seeking of sympathetic policy venues. According to Baumgartner and Jones, this tactic involves the manipulation of policy images in order to push policy debates toward favorable venues. In other words, those who have not succeeded in policy debates will seek supporters in alternative venues such as congressional committees, courts, or even state government agencies. In this quest, the manipulation of policy images explains why an issue is discussed in a particular venue and attracts the interest of the members of such venue. There are commonplace techniques of venue shopping. For example, venue shopping typically works to appeal to a broader audience so that more supportive participants get involved in the debate. Further, attacks to current policies from decision makers occur in other venues aiming to extend their own policy jurisdictions. The study of group-to-government relations has fashioned numerous approaches and an abundance of terms to describe this relationship such as competitive pluralism, state corporatism, sub-government, policy whirlpools, and iron triangles. One intriguing approach is the discussion of policy communities and policy networks as deliberated in PET. Baumgartner and Jones described policy communities as systems of limited participation containing interest groups and persons knowledgeable of a particular policy arena. This suggests a steady, close, and typically concurring relationship between a small number of groups and government. In contrast, policy networks represent a more comprehensive set of associations between interest groups and governments, which contains less stability and agreement. These concepts are illustrated in Table 1. As Table 1 outlines, policy communities are typically protected from the wider political process. This happens since public policies are dissected and analyzed at a level that a limited number of actors have the time or resources to become involved. These policy communities compose of stable relationships between public officials and influential interest groups. These relationships are sustained since the participants share a general agreement or expertise about a policy issue, and, at times, attempt to restrict others interested in the issue. Moreover, individuals involved in policy communities understand that while not all may agree with every decision made, it remains preferable to act in this manner as opposed to seeking larger networks which may diminish their power. In fact, such policy communities are often monopolistic in nature, as institutional structures that develop policy decisions while limiting the entrance of other participants. In turn, monopolistic control over policy venues makes changes in policy images difficult, which weakens the possibilities for policy change. The preservation of the policy monopoly requires an agreement to the same policy image as well as an ability to exclude groups who disagree. A policy issue is often rendered as dull, to minimize external interest, or as technical, requiring a certain level of expertise, specifically to leave out others. Accordingly, policymaking is often incremental and based on prior agreements between a small number of individuals. The monopolistic structure of a policy community can only be altered when new participants with opposing interests make their way into the community. Those excluded from the policy monopolies will attempt to shift the debate by questioning the existing approach and appealing to public officials. New understandings of public policy issues attract new participants to the policy process, which can sometimes weaken the power of policy monopolies. Once more, an example of this occurred when the negative images surrounding nuclear power helped diminish the powerful policy monopoly of the time. Environmental advocates raised the issue in several arenas, and an increased number of individuals were immersed in nuclear policymaking, causing the previous policy monopoly to collapse. Baumgartner and Jones acknowledged that shifting institutional and political environments can influence public policy change, as well as stimulate change in policy via centralized government structures. For instance, Congress in the United States can be either a source of policy stability or a promoter of change; it can work to maintain or destroy policy communities. When Congress pays more attention to a particular policy issue in response to requests, interest groups or executive agencies can force change in congressional behavior toward those issues. Members of Congress can link their interests with those of persons outside of Congress to move the issue to a different policy venue. This framework is also applicable in state legislatures and other forms of government, depending on the structure. The notions of agenda setting and bounded rationality are also fundamental components of PET. Since key decision-makers cannot consider all issues at all times, they disregard most and consider only a few at the top of their particular agenda. Moreover, some public policy issues are much more pressing than others, whereas some require quick actions. For example, economic issues (eg, unemployment) often remain high on the political agenda, while catastrophic events (eg, natural disasters) demand an immediate response. However, since the attention of audiences is limited, and the number of policy issues is seemingly limitless, the importance of each issue is open to various analyses and deliberations. More specifically, agenda setting refers to the aptitude of policymakers to focus on one policy issue while disregarding others. The absence of attention to a majority of policy issues explains why numerous public policies do not change, whereas concentrated periods of attention to other policy issues may stimulate alternative ways to frame and resolve such problems. The concept of bounded rationality suggests that policymakers' ability to implement decisions is inseparable from their objectives (ie, true rationality does not exist). Therefore, even individuals who intend to make rational choices are bound to make satisficing choices in these complex policymaking environments. These political environments of public policy change all point to the key PET concept that political systems can be characterized as both stable and dynamic. Most public policies stay the same for long periods, whereas others change very quickly and dramatically. Alternatively, public policy change in a certain arena may be incremental for several years, yet followed by overwhelming changes which set an entirely new direction for the issue(s) in the future. The aim of PET is to explain these long periods of policy stability punctuated by short, but intense, periods of change, considered on a time and evolution scale, as illustrated in Figure 1.8 The PET approach suggests that powerful political actors attempt to strategically control policy images through rhetoric and symbols in a way that favors their own political goals. Policies remain the same within certain communities since there is limited external interest, or perhaps limited capacity of outside parties to participate. Policies change when adequate external interest, often triggered via key focusing events (eg, an oil spill), initiates the collapse of the policy communities. In this scenario, external attention rises and the issues are considered in a broader environment, where power is more evenly spread and new actors can influence the agenda. If the levels of external pressure gain enough momentum, they may cause major policy punctuations, as opposed to the more common minor policy changes. The increased attention and communication can cause novel approaches to be considered, which may rouse new conflicts between political actors. Overall, with PET, changes in energy and environmental policy can be explained by a successful challenge to policy monopolies. Naturally, the majority of public policies remain unchanged for long periods since policymakers are incapable or reluctant to pay enough attention to them. However, those excluded from monopolies have an interest in challenging or reshaping the dominant way of defining policy problems, which are often triggered or brought to the agenda by focusing events. The successful re-definition of a policy problem prompts an influx of new actors. Previously excluded interest groups can work to attract the attention of decision-makers in other venues through the definition of new policy images. Practitioners working in the energy and environmental arenas can use this framework and analysis to comprehend how policy changes follow a progression of increased attention, venue shopping, and shifting policy images. As individuals come to understand the nature of a policy problem in a different way, more and more become attentive and involved. This growth in outside involvement offers an increased likelihood of an additional shift to a policy image, as new participants discuss new ideas and propose policy solutions (eg, renewable energy mandates). Although most public policy issues display stability, and there are numerous policy communities, they are continually being created and destroyed. Therefore, changing narratives and considering venue shopping may be a strategic approach to enact future, innovative energy and environmental policies. While challenges remain in powerful equilibriums that maintain the status quo, strategies such as attention seeking and public participation may assist in altering the equilibrium. This is greatly heightened with dramatic triggering or focusing events that can be catalysts for stimulating such punctuation. This framework and historical underpinning of policy change offers considerable, practical relevance for those interested in energy and environmental policy issues in terms of how future modifications can be made.

Introduction Where are we heading with the energy sector's water use? The energy sector's aggregate global water consumption is projected to increase; this is largely because more bioenergy and fossil fuel use is anticipated. Whether the energy sector actually uses more water in the future will depend in part on whether technologies can decouple fossil fuel use and bioenergy production from freshwater consumption and on the policies and market conditions that shape the relative attractiveness of fossil fuels and bioenergy vis-a-vis conservation, efficiency and other sources of energy. The focus herein is on the fossil fuel–water relationship. Fossil fuels have played a significant role in global economic growth and are poised to continue their domination of the energy sector, even as increasing attention is given to their climate, water, environmental and health impacts. Water is either an essential input or one that is difficult or costly to substitute for current conventional and unconventional fossil fuel production and use. Major investments are being made or contemplated globally for how to meet future fossil fuel demand. These investments are often capital intensive, bulky and long-lived. Consequently, the energy trajectory established in the near term may influence fossil fuels'use of, dependence on and impacts on water resources for decades. In order to understand where we are heading with the fossil fuel–water relationship, this chapter explores how the fossil fuel sector currently relies on water. It discusses how oil and natural gas from traditionally unconventional sources are raising water quantity and quality concerns, and how electric power generation is vulnerable to water availability. Finally, it presents policy options for managing the fossil fuel–water resource relationship. While this chapter presents a snapshot of the current relationship between fossil fuels and water, it is important to remember that relationships often evolve either through intentional action or through unanticipated developments.

Energy Supply and Decarbonisation Beyond Brexit: Politics and Policy

The island of Cyprus has always been in a very critical geography and recently the changing strategic relations in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East has further increased the importance of this beautiful island. Recently, a strategic step has been taken by the Turkish government to transport water from Turkey to the North Cyprus. For decades, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) has been fighting with the water shortages, which also negatively influenced its agricultural production and economic development. The impact of the un-ending economic embargos on this part of the island by international community has been further exacerbated with the lack of sufficient water resources in the past decades. The recent move by the Turkish government includes building of a dam in the South-eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey (Alakopru Dam) and the transfer of the water resources of a major river to the island by pipelines to be built under sea, floating at the depth of 250 m. It is anticipated that the project will meet the TRNC’s water needs in the next 50 years. Undoubtedly, water is a crucial resource for all the countries of the region (and the mankind) and it is predicted that in the near future it can be as important as oil and gas reserves. This unique and innovative project in Northern Cyprus may inspire several similar endeavours in the region in future. Additionally, the water provision to the relatively poorer North Cyprus may change the political dynamics of the island, as it will be a catalyst for its economic development. Furthermore, the improper use of the water resources create several environmental problems and leads to global warming and draught, particularly in the Middle East, North Africa, and Asia; and because of that the scientific analysis of the Turkish government’s “Water of Peace” project in TRNC is extremely important. In this context, this chapter first assesses the potential impact of the project on the ecology, climate, agriculture, economy and politics of the island. Subsequently, at the macro level, the project’s potential impact on the efficient use of the world’s water resources (and the global warming) is studied. Here, the research has shown that the project will increase the water resources of the island and thus positively influence its habitat. Furthermore, the humidity will also increase and thus precipitation will rise. The efficient use of potable water in a needy geography will partially eliminate the negative impact of the global warming on the region. Also, the necessary energy consumption for producing potable and irrigation water (possibly from the Sea) will cease to exist and this will positively influence the slowing down of global warming. Additionally, the potential—environment friendly—electricity production with the transported water (without necessitating a major dam or nuclear power plant) will solve the energy problem of the island and also positively influence the slowing down of the global warming. Finally, the project comparison with the “South East Anatolia Irrigation and Electricity Production Project of Turkey” is also made. In analyzing the TRNC “Water of Peace Project,” the potential risks and the maintenance requirements of the project, its engineering and design are also analyzed.

Managing water in an integrated and sustainable manner is currently challenging water resource managers throughout the world. It requires professionals from many disciplines working together with impacted stakeholders in crafting a strategy that is economically efficient, ecologically sound, and acceptable to all who are impacted by how this resource is managed over space and time. We at universities are continually thinking about how we can better prepare our students who elect to become our future water resources planners and managers. This paper identifies some of the issues and challenges facing educators in this field, and some possible ways of addressing them. The amount of water available and suitable for human use in the world is limited. Too many humans must live with less water than what they would like, and even need, to maintain their health let alone their overall welfare. Currently the world's water resource systems are not able to provide everyone reliable potable water at reasonable costs. Populations are increasing, as are per capita demands for water. The United Nations tells us about one person in six, on average, in this world has no access to safe drinking water, and about one in three lacks adequate sanitation. In many countries these percentages are substantially higher. One can assume that those without clean water to drink are sick. The World Health Organization (WHO) tells us more than 30 thousand children under the age of five die from either hunger or from water-borne and easily-preventable diseases. We use about 70 percent of our freshwater resources for agriculture. What we get for that varies considerably. The World Water Council believes that by 2020 we shall need 17 percent more water than is currently available if we are to feed everyone. Do all these grim statistics suggest a water crisis? Will there be a water crisis in the future? Much depends on how we manage our water and our watersheds (Rogers et al. 2006). And this in turn depends on our abilities at universities to provide the personnel with the training and capacity to manage this resource effectively. With perhaps a few exceptions, those of us who live in North America are not dying from lack of water or sanitation. We are fortunate. We seem to have enough water, although the recent droughts in the southeast and in the west suggests we may be increasingly challenged to meet our demands for water supplies, to keep our rivers flowing and clean and our aquatic ecosystems functioning as they should. We can manage all our natural resources better, and professionals know this, but deciding what is better and implementing measures to be better involves more than just professionals. Politicians representing the public, and increasingly the public itself, are participants in this decision-making process. They define what is “better” and when and how to act. And inevitably acting requires money. Acting in ways to prevent crises is not always easy to do. There are always more pressing matters that get people's attention – and their money – until of course there really is a water crisis. This has prompted the well-known concept called the hydro-illogical cycle illustrating the lack of interest in planning for floods during periods of drought, or in planning for droughts when experiencing a flood. Many of the issues facing water and environmental resource managers today generally stem from the following factors: changing priorities of water and environmental management objectives over time – for example from economic efficiency to ecological health and diversity that require changes in past policies and even infrastructure, the way our institutions work, the need for multiple disciplinary inputs and public participation, uncertainties regarding future demands, supplies, and pollutant types and loads, and a lack of adequate understanding of many natural and social processes affecting, and affected by, the management of water and environmental resources. Managers and planners are challenged to develop plans and policies for serving often conflicting multiple purposes and satisfying multiple objectives expressed by multiple stakeholders representing multiple interests and backgrounds, all lacking perfect knowledge of what economic, physical, chemical, biological, ecological and social impacts will result from what ever decisions they make. We all could benefit from better science, better management tools, better training of professionals in all the applicable disciplines, and political institutions that can provide the expertise and leadership that will result in more timely, integrated, and sustainable water resources and environmental management plans and policies. The remainder of this paper outlines some current issues related to the training of individuals who wish to accept the challenges just described and contribute to improving how we manage our water and environmental resources. Recent decades have witnessed a shift in emphasis by U.S. agencies providing funds for research and training of graduates interested in environmental and water resources management. The emphasis has been on addressing scientific uncertainties and less toward planning and management issues. This runs counter to those who claim there is a need for improved environmental and water resource management. One result of this shift away from research in planning and managerial issues has been the decline of academic programs in water management and planning. Ironically, weather- and climate-related research programs, as well as large-scale observation initiatives promoted by many in the hydrologic, ecological, environmental engineering and other communities, increasingly cite benefits for water resources, environmental, and ecological management as central to their programmatic justification. Having more scientific information and the understanding that comes from it does not automatically mean we know how best to use it. There are many scientific, technical, political, practical, and regulatory challenges to integrating advances in hydrologic science into policies for managing environmental and water resources. There may be an unrealized potential, for instance, for using improvements in hydrologic forecasting based on new data sources and methods, such as embedded environmental sensors and data assimilation techniques. As science teaches us more about the processes taking place at the interface of hydrology and climate, and as the hydrologic, water quality, and associated ecological implications of land cover change become better understood, ways are needed to incorporate this knowledge into management plans and policies. Research is needed to figure out how best to do that, and trained professional planners and managers are needed to make it happen. At various universities, debates are taking place over a variety of issues, some of which are listed below. Issue #1: Educational policy – should universities turn out more well-trained engineering professionals and scientists, or more broadly trained generalists? Many will argue that there is an overarching need for people who know there is a world beyond where they live and work and can appreciate how history and culture affects current events. There is a need for individuals who can evaluate, think, and speak and write effectively at technical and non-technical levels. In my opinion, such skills should be obtained at the undergraduate level. One way to get this background is to obtain a liberal arts education (including study in a foreign country). Expertise in specific technical disciplines can be obtained at the master's level. After all, medicine, law, and business are graduate subjects. Why not in this multidisciplinary water resource field as well? Obviously for those desiring engineering or the sciences some basic introductory courses would be expected at the undergraduate level, just as pre-med courses are expected for admission to most medical schools. This is not to say we cannot train students to become competent technical professionals with engineering, economic, ecological, or natural resource degrees, for example, at the undergraduate level, but doing that eliminates the time needed for students to obtain the other skills that all should have who expect to become tomorrow's leaders in whatever they do. Yet in much of the world, attending universities costs money, especially at private universities and colleges. This means we need fellowships and training grants to attract the best and brightest students we can to our water resources profession. Issue #2: Course curricula – do they need changing? Many universities need to take a serious look at their curricula more often than they do. It seems much easier to change course contents than the overall plan. Most educators support exposing students to interdisciplinary projects at both graduate and undergraduate levels, so that students learn to participate productively in such projects and recognize the approaches and issues of fields other than their own. Engineers, economists, and ecologists especially need to appreciate each other's approaches to problem solving. Being exposed to case studies, including failed projects and those that get students out in the field is also beneficial. This gives them an appreciation of multidisciplinary team-building and dealing with multiple conflicting goals such as drought mitigation, flood management, flash flood prediction, water supply, transportation, emergency management, agriculture, and ecosystem stewardship – and conflicting opinions about how to achieve them. Issue #3: Continuing education: How can it best be provided to all professionals? Some have suggested that whatever the technical information students learn, it will be obsolete by the time they get their first job. The rate of increase in knowledge and changes in technology seem to be increasing over time. The half-life of the technical information we teach our students is decreasing. On-the-job training and continuing education throughout one's professional career is an absolute necessity. How can universities best meet this need? Some governmental agencies concerned with environmental and water resources management have programs for continuing education. However, a high turnover rate often makes this uneconomic. Professors themselves need continuing education as well. Their research provides some of this, but they also can learn from their consulting and what they do on their sabbatical leaves. All professionals should be provided such opportunities, not just academics. Issue #4: Funding. Can the needed changes in education be accomplished in the absence of changes in funding “carrots and sticks”? Difficulties in supporting students studying water and environmental resources management have led to the relative lack of students studying these subjects. University deans look for where the money is when they analyze continuing and new directions for their academic departments. The availability of fellowships, traineeships, and research grants are noticed. Industry can also provide support, and in many disciplines they do, but in the water and environmental resources arena the private sector has not been a major player. Managing water and environmental resources is primarily a public responsibility. Nevertheless industry has provided some support, for example to the American Water Works Association Research Foundation which promotes research and technology transfer. Coop programs, internships, and traineeships that expose students to the real world may be a partial solution. The USDA-CSREES coop funding program is an example for agricultural water management. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers master's degree program in planning is another example. Employers working in the water management area often report difficulties in finding employees with the appropriate backgrounds. Because of the decrease in funding of research and training grants in the water planning and management area, few young graduate students are finding their way into the field. This leads to fewer students being trained in the areas of most interest to these employers. The report Freshwater Ecosystems: Revitalizing Educational Programs in Limnology (National Research Council 1996) included a chapter on linking education and water resource management. Water is viewed as a public good, and thus those who manage it are often associated with government agencies. At a recent meeting of the National Research Council (Logan 2006), several government agencies stated their need for articulate young people prepared for working in interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary teams, which is the nature of modern water management, viewing problems in a broad systems context – water management decisions made upstream “reverberate” downstream influencing eco-systems, fisheries, and the coastal zone in general, linking societal goals and objectives with performance measures and conceptual eco-logical models, adaptability in general and adaptive manage-ment in particular, quantifying and dealing with risk and uncertainty, and conflict management and resolution in a stakeholder-driven participatory political process. One can think of other skills needed to address some of our current and future management challenges. For example, how can managers most effectively design, manage and operate infrastructure in the face of non-stationarity in water supply and demand; identify and provide environmental flows in already over-allocated systems, especially in times of drought, and environmental effects of reservoir operation and dam removal; alter reservoir regulation in the face of changing uses and priorities, environmental and ecological uncertainties and needs, and possibly the removal of past engineering infrastructure such as dams and canals; predict and then respond to hydrologic responses to precipitation, surface water generation and transport, environmental stresses on aquatic ecosystems, the relationships between landscape changes, sediment fluxes, and subsurface transport, as well as mapping ground water recharge and discharge vulnerability; respond to the environmental, economic, health and social impacts caused by floods, droughts, sedimentation, and contamination including from pharmaceuticals and other household chemicals and products; provide an early warning for flooding, droughts, habitat degradation, and health hazards, increase the efficiency of water use, especially in the agricultural sector; address questions whose answers require knowledge of the quantitative relationships among various physical, chemical, biological, and social process occurring at disparate spatial or temporal scales. For example, how can we scale up to larger area forecasts from knowledge of smaller habitat patch scale ones? How can we estimate regional aquatic ecosystem processes over entire river basins often based on small plot experiments and observations? deal with deforestation, suburbanization, road construction, agriculture, and other human land-use activities that impact economies and ecosystems (changes in land cover, climate, and land use affect water quantity and quality regimes which impact ecosystem health and other uses of water such as for drinking, irrigation, industry and recreation); manage chemical and biological components of the hydrological cycle under changing land uses and habitats, and control invasive species … This list could continue. Suffice to say there are many subjects a competent water resource manager should be familiar with, at least to the extent that the issues are appreciated and that effective communication can take place between the manager and experts or specialists when appropriate. Today's planning and management environment involves public participation, not just at the final stages of planning, but throughout the process, including decision making. Tools are being developed to help all stakeholders gain a “shared vision” of how their system works, and the physical, economic, environmental, ecological and sometimes the social impacts of various plans and management policies. Such public participation does not make the planning and management processes any easier, or more efficient, or cheaper. In fact often the opposite happens. But the end result has a far better chance of being robust to multiple interests and thus more sustainable in the long run (ASCE 1998). Future water resources managers need to know how to facilitate such participation. Water resources professors cannot rest on their laurels. Planning and management issues continue to evolve as do their demands on this profession. Students today will be faced with problems and technology we can only speculate about today. But they have to be prepared to effectively address those issues and use that technology. It's the job of those of us involved in water resources planning and management programs at universities to ensure our graduates have that capability. The increasing breadth, complexity, and rate of change of professional practice places a greater emphasis not only on continuing education but also on what a basic professional education must deliver at the undergraduate as well as graduate levels. The body of knowledge necessary to effectively manage water resources is beyond the scope of the traditional bachelor's degree, even when coupled with early-career experience. Education must meld technical excellence with the ability to lead, influence, and integrate a diverse number of disciplines and stakeholders – all required to meet societal goals in some ‘best’ and most sustainable way. Ideally, graduates from university programs in water resources planning and management should be knowledgeable in their particular discipline, as well as conversant with other applicable disciplines. An engineer, for example, should not only understand how to use the theories, principles, and/or fundamentals of mathematics, physics, chemistry, engineering economics, biology, and probability and statistics underlying engineering but also be exposed to political processes, systems analysis and computer modeling, laws and regulations, history, sociology, and ethics. Most importantly, they should know how to work in interdisciplinary teams and effectively and clearly communicate orally and in writing. They must be optimistic in the face of challenges and setbacks they will surely face, and be committed to ethical behavior, both personally and professionally. After graduation they must remain curious and willing to continue learning fresh approaches, develop and use new technology or innovative applications of existing technology, and take on new endeavors that require research and ingenuity. Managing our water resources, including our ecosystems in our natural and built environments, involves both technical and administrative expertise. It involves both the “hard” as well as the “soft” sciences. In the hard sciences, the laws of physics, biology, chemistry, and mathematics are well established. The same cannot be said of the soft social and political sciences. Thus the “hard” sciences are easy. The “soft” sciences are hard. Clearly, however, we need more people competent in both to address many of the issues water resource managers are facing today. Daniel P. Loucks is a professor in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Cornell University in Ithaca, NY, USA, (www.cornell.edu) where he teaches and directs research in the development and application of economics, ecology and systems analysis methods for estimating the impacts of alternative policies aimed at solving environmental and regional water resources problems. He has authored articles and book chapters in these subject areas and has been involved in various development and environmental restoration projects throughout the world. He may be reached at Loucks@cornell.edu.

European Community and Canadian federal environmental laws as they affect the energy sector -oil and gas, and non-nuclear electricity generation- are reviewed and comparatively analyzed. The study concludes that it is appropriate to consider the development of both the Canadian and European environmental law in terms of a federal model and that there are legal federalism lessons to be learned from both sides. While from an energy sector perspective EC and Canadian environmental policy and law have developed in a broadly similar manner, the study shows important differences in timing and pace of implementation. Canadian energy industries were required to respond earlier to strengthening and harmonizing of air quality standards, and to the scientific and public review demands of environmental assessment than their European counterparts. EC air pollution measures targeted the energy sector more directly and explicitly than is the case in Canada. The EC has also been more successful in coordinating and integrating environmental and energy policy, and is closer to implementing economic pollution control instruments such as tradeable permits and taxes. Canada has placed greater emphasis on civil and criminal liability, including personal liability ofcorporate officers and directors, and the energy sector hasresponded with environmental audits and improvements in compliance and corporate environmental planning. The Canadian energy sector has, to a greater extent than the European imdustry, been required to deal with increasingly extensive rights of the public to participate in environmental decisions.

As an important organ of plants, root play an important role in crop growth and development by absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. Studies on crop root systems, morphological traits, and genetic improvement of physiological functions are important in the establishment of root morphology and efficient use of water and nutrients. This paper mainly introduces the phenotypic and genetic breeding research on the efficient use of soil water and nutrients in important crops such as corn, rice, wheat, and rape. It also discusses the QTL markers and functional genes related to morphological and physiological functions and its applications in genetic improvement. Through design breeding, combined with high-throughput and high-precision root-scanning technology, screening and obtaining the ideal root structure with efficient use of soil water and nutrients, combined with techniques such as resequencing of genomes and analytical methods, the roots are selected for breeding. Crop varieties with better configuration, better quality and better yield have important promotion significance.

In the United States, urban population growth, improved living standards, limited development of new water supplies, and dwindling current water supplies are causing the demand for treated municipal water to exceed the supply. Although water used to irrigate the residential urban landscape will vary according to factors such as landscape type, management practices, and region, landscape irrigation can vary from 40% to 70% of household use of water. So, the efficient use of irrigation water in urban landscapes must be the primary focus of water conservation. In addition, plants in a typical residential landscape often are given more water than is required to maintain ecosystem services such as carbon regulation, climate control, and preservation of aesthetic appearance. This implies that improvements in the efficiency of landscape irrigation will yield significant water savings. Urban areas across the United States face different water supply and demand issues and a range of factors will affect how water is used in the urban landscape. The purpose of this review is to summarize how irrigation and water application technologies; landscape design and management strategies; the relationship among people, plants, and the urban landscape; the reuse of water resources; economic and noneconomic incentives; and policy and ordinances impact the efficient use of water in the urban landscape.

Among the most widespread structures for successfully retaining water and checking erosion on the semi-arid portions of China's Loess Plateau, check dams retain silt at slower than projected rates, leading to flood control issues. Meanwhile, the shortage and the uneven distribution of time and space of water resources in semi-arid areas can easily cause droughts and floods, which seriously restricted the rapid development of the socioeconomic. However, some of the high-quality rain and flood resources accumulated in the check dams can be used to alleviate part of the water resources crisis instead of causing flood. With the goal of holistically maximizing a projected check dam array's water resource, ecosystem and socioeconomic benefits, a Check Dam Benefit Maximization Model (CDBMM) was first developed. The CDBMM was first applied to the Si Jiagou Basin, and the model showed the total costs represent 7.07% of the total and rather significant benefits. Water resources benefits accounting for 45.40% of the total benefits, indicating that the water resources benefits were substantial and should be considered as the main influencing factors in the basin's ecosystem-friendly design and construction. Use of the CDBMM in watershed planning will allow a more efficient use of water and soil resources and greatly alleviate water crises in the semi-arid area. It can further provide a reference for both check dam system planning and the system benefits analysis.

Recently, there has been an increasing concern about the effective and efficient use of water for agriculture and water conservation in general. The promotion of effective water use and on farm water management was identified as an important contribution to the management strategy needed to address problems of water scarcity and practising intensive agriculture on environmentally sound grounds. Moreover, given the limitation to further expansion of irrigated land in most countries, a large part of the future food requirements will need to be covered from a more efficient and sustainable use of irrigation water (FAO 1993). Therefore, full intensification of agriculture in irrigated lands, while taking all possible precautions against the environmental problems that could follow this approach, is the challenge of the immediate future. This of course affects the needs and modes of future irrigated agriculture.