Integrated Geophysical Investigations at the Greek Kamarina Site (Southern Sicily, Italy)

ABSTRACTResults of electrical resistivity surveying and pseudo‐three‐dimensional tomographic imaging at the 15 ha Pre‐Hispanic archaeological site of Sitio Drago, Isla Colon, Bocas del Toro province, Panama are presented. The site was occupied between ad 690–1410 and represents the largest known nucleated settlement in the province. A low mound in the centre of the site was selected for intensive electrical surveying in order to locate buried archaeological features. A series of surveys were conducted, including electrical resistivity mapping and pseudo‐three‐dimensional tomographic imaging. The results revealed a group of resistivity anomalies associated with buried archaeological features. Based on these results, archaeological excavations were targeted that uncovered a cluster of coral slab structures, each containing human remains. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Abstract. During archaeological excavations it is important to monitor the new excavated areas and findings day by day in order to be able to plan future excavation activities. At present, this daily activity is usually performed by using total stations, which survey the changes of the archaeological site: the surveyors are asked to produce day by day draft plans and sections which allow archaeologists to plan their future activities. The survey is realized during the excavations or just at the end of every working day and drawings have to be produced as soon as possible in order to allow the comprehension of the work done and to plan the activities for the following day. By using this technique, all the measurements, even those not necessary for the day after, have to be acquired in order to avoid a ‘loss of memory’. A possible alternative to this traditional approach is aerial photogrammetry, if the images can be acquired quickly and at a taken distance able to guarantee the necessary accuracy of a few centimeters. Today the use of UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) can be considered a proven technology able to acquire images at distances ranging from 4 m up to 20 m: and therefore as a possible monitoring system to provide the necessary information to the archaeologists day by day. The control network, usually present at each archaeological site, can give the stable control points useful for orienting a photogrammetric block acquired by using an UAV equipped with a calibrated digital camera and a navigation control system able to drive the aircraft following a pre-planned flight scheme. Modern digital photogrammetric software can solve for the block orientation and generate a DSM automatically, allowing rapid orthophoto generation and the possibility of producing sections and plans. The present paper describes a low cost UAV system realized by the research group of the Politecnico di Torino and tested on a Roman villa archaeological site located in Aquileia (Italy), a well-known UNESCO WHL site. The results of automatic orientation and orthophoto production are described in terms of their accuracy and the completeness of information guaranteed for archaeological site excavation management.

Ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that can accurately map the spatial extent of near‐surface objects or changes in soil media and produce images of those features. Data are acquired by reflecting radar waves off subsurface features in a way that is similar to radar methods used to detect airplanes in the sky. Radar waves are propagated in distinct pulses from a surface antenna, reflected off buried objects, features or bedding contacts in the ground, and detected back at the source by a receiving antenna. As radar pulses are being transmitted through various materials on their way to the buried target feature, their velocity changes, depending on the physical and chemical properties of the material through which they are traveling. When the travel times of the energy pulses are measured and velocity through the ground is known, distance (or depth in the ground) can be accurately measured. A three‐dimensional data set is then produced. In the GPR method, radar antennas are moved along the ground in transects, and two‐dimensional profiles of a large number of periodic reflections are created. Thus produces a profile of subsurface stratigraphy and buried features along lines.When data are acquired in a series of transects within a grid and reflections are correlated and processed, an accurate three‐dimensional picture of buried features and associated stratigraphy can be constructed.Ground‐penetrating radar surveys allow for a wide aerial coverage in a short period of time, with excellent subsurface resolution of buried materials and geological stratigraphy. Some radar systems have been able to resolve stratigraphy and other features at depths in excess of 40 meters, when soil and sediment conditions are suitable. More typically, GPR is used to map buried materials of interest at depths from a few tens of centimeters to five meters in depth. Radar surveys cannot only identify buried objects for possible future excavation but also interpolate between excavations, projecting subsurface knowledge into areas that have not yet been, or may never be excavated.GPR surveys are most typically used by geologists, archaeologists, hydrologists, soil engineers, and other geoscientists.

<p>The VESTA project (Valorizzazione E Salvaguardia del paTrimonio culturAle attraverso l’utilizzo di tecnologie) deals with the experimental integration of advanced technologies designed for safeguarding and prospecting sub-soil and ancient structures as well as the management of the information derived from the carried out investigations. The final goal is to support the end users with regard to their conservation, safeguard and discovery activities.</p><p>The pilot site test of the Project is the Archaeological Park of Paestum, which is located in the Southeast of the Gulf of Salerno, Italy, and was built by the Greeks and later strengthened by the Lucani and the Romans. Today, the Archaeological Park of Paestum is recognised by UNESCO as part of the World Cultural Heritage thanks to the excellent state of conservation of its structures, especially the three majestic temples: the Temple of Hera (sixth century BC), the Temple of Neptune (fifth century BC) and the Temple of Ceres (sixth century BC). These are remarkable examples of Doric style architecture.</p><p>The technological skills made available by the VESTA team are based on:</p><ul><li>Earth observation tools, such as satellites (optical and radar) for the large-scale identification of critical issues, both natural and anthropic, involving cultural heritage and around them;</li> <li>Mini-micro UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) equipped with multispectral, thermal and radar optical sensors and aimed at detailed soil and wall structure analysis;</li> <li>High and low frequency terrestrial radar (GPR - Ground Penetrating Radar) for inspections of masonry and subsoil structures respectively;</li> <li>Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) for the investigation of the subsoil.</li> </ul><p>These technological solutions are key tools for identifying and mapping possible degradation phenomena of ancient structures identifying dangers related to the surrounding environment that could compromise the state of conservation of the monuments inside the park. Therefore, their use as well as the cooperative exploitation of the provided results allow an improvement of knowledge about the critical aspects of the territory and the state of conservation of the artefacts, in order to facilitate the planning of maintenance interventions. Specifically, the gathered data are made available to site manager via St’ART ™ web platform, which allows a simple consultation of results collected during VESTA project campaigns thanks to reports and thematic maps.</p><p>Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank the VESTA project “Valorizzazione E Salvaguardia del paTrimonio culturAle attraverso l’utilizzo di tecnologie innovative” by which the present work has been financed. The VESTA project is co-founded by the Campania Region within the POR-FESR 2014-2020 program.</p><p> </p>

The ancient Egyptian Abedju (original name of the present Abydos) locality is a famous archaeological site southwest of Balyana town, Sohag Governorate, Upper Egypt. It is located to the west of the agricultural land of the Nile Valley. The locality represents one of the most important burial grounds for kings and high court dignitaries in ancient Egypt. Shallow geophysical techniques are considered as one of the most accurate and cost-effective methods used in archaeological prospecting and are considered as rapid and safe techniques in detecting a wide range of buried archaeological features. The geoelectric resistance scanning technique, using the Geoscan RM-15 Resistance Meter, is applied with a twin-electrode con- figuration at three sites of the unexcavated localities of Abydos area. This technique proved to be a useful means of exploring the sites through mapping the subsurface burial inhomogeneities resulting from the marked resistance contrast between the buried stone and brick walls and the covering fill of sand, silt and clay. Interesting different buried features are imaged and displayed on maps and three-dimensional representations to guide the archaeological excavation programmes at the sites of Umm El-Qaab, Shunet El-Zebib and Kom El-Sultan within the Abydos region. At the Umm El-Qaab site the combined interpretation of the tomography resistance ranges and maps indicate buried walls and rubble as well as an amorphous background area. At the Shunet El-Zebib site, the texture of the images, which show scattered and crowded high-resistance anomalies, confirms the exist- ence of buried tombs at the site, which is surrounded by defence walls. Thus, this site was not a fortress or a palace, but a special cemetery for higher dignitaries. Kom El-Sultan, however, shows a concentration of high-resistance anomalies at the northern part. Thus, these may be related to walls and rubble related to a nearby elevated temple. Copyright * c 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

During the last few years geophysical survey has developed considerably in terms of instrumentation and image processing. Together with remote sensing and GIS, it is becoming increasingly, if still slowly, integrated into archaeological investigations in the Mediterranean. This article reviews how, and with what success, geophysical techniques--and, to a lesser extent, geochemical methods, aerial/satellite remote sensing and GIS--have been applied to Mediterranean (especially Greek) archaeology, bearing in mind the environmental constraints of the region, and the significance, diversity and number of its ancient monuments. The application of all the main techniques of geophysical survey and some geochemical methods to a wide range of archaeological targets carried out over the last 40 years is discussed critically. Current developments in instrumentation and data processing are presented, and the next generation of geophysical work, which will have to meet challenges in relation to the protection and management of cultural resources, is also considered. In view of the need to create a common platform for the preservation of cultural heritage, it is argued that geophysical prospection techniques have to become an inseparable component of the archaeological investigative process.

The increasing interest in preserving of the archaeological sites requires the integration of a wide spectra of geophysical methodologies for field measurements. In fact, archaeological investigations need multidisciplinary studies to characterize the physical properties of near-surface. In this context, the integration of electromagnetic techniques seems to be one of the most suitable tools. The most suitable geophysical investigation techniques employed for archaeological purposes are the geomagnetic, GPR and resistivity/conductivity (DC and EM) methods. These techniques are not invasive and allow us to obtain high resolution images of subsurface, even if their use is dependent on site and resolution. In general, geomagnetic and EM methods are more adaptive for large survey, in order to obtain fast results with low resolution. On the contrary, GPR shows high resolution information, but for the heavy data process is adapt for small survey areas. The DC methods are not common then the previous ones, but their contribute is important above all in urban area. Anyway, the integration of different geophysical techniques is the best way for field measurements to identify the remains, because each geophysical technique has the ability to define a variation of the physical parameters (electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility, dielectric permittivity) which is able to highlight some pattern of the buried object. This kind of approach was applied in several archaeological site. Moreover, the geophysical contrast between archaeological features and surrounding soils sometimes are difficult to define due to problems of sensitivity and resolution related on the subsoil characteristics and limits of geophysical methods. The results obtained in real and laboratory study cases based on archaeogeophysical approach are here discussed.

During the last few years geophysical survey has developed considerably in terms of instrumentation and image processing. Together with remote sensing and GIS, it is becoming increasingly, if still slowly, integrated into archaeological investigations in the Mediterranean. This article reviews how, and with what success, geophysical techniques - and, to a lesser extent, geochemical methods, aerial/satellite remote sensing and GIS - have been applied to Mediterranean (especially Greek) archaeology, bearing in mind the environmental constraints of the region, and the significance, diversity and number of its ancient monuments. The application of all the main techniques of geophysical survey and some geochemical methods to a wide range of archaeological targets carried out over the last 40 years is discussed critically. Current developments in instrumentation and data processing are presented, and the next generation of geophysical work, which will have to meet challenges in relation to the protection and management of cultural resources, is also considered. In view of the need to create a common platform for the preservation of cultural heritage, it is argues that geophysical prospection techniques have to become an inseparable component of the archaeological investigation process.

The use of ground-penetrating radar in archaeology

New techniques of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) acquisition and computer processing were tested at archaeological sites in the American Southwest and found to be highly effective in producing images of buried archaeological features. These new methods, especially amplitude slice-maps, were combined with more standard data processing and interpretation techniques and tested at sites with little or no surface expression. In southern Arizona, numerous pit structures buried in terrace alluvium were discovered and mapped. In the Four Corners region, a Chaco period great kiva and other pit structures and features were mapped by GPR and later confirmed through excavation. At some sites, GPR surveys did not successfully identify buried archaeological features. These failed surveys highlight both geological and methodological problems including soil conditions, surface disturbance, and equipment calibration that may be avoided or ameliorated in future GPR surveys.

Remotely sensed and geophysical data can be effectively integrated through the use of geographical information systems (GIS). The role of GIS in the accurate mapping of an area of archaeological interest, prerequisite for a devising and effective excavation strategy, is well established. Multitemporal aerial photos at different scales and high-resolution magnetic data were acquired over the ancient Greek colony of Metaponto in Southern Italy (7/sup th/ C. BC). Aerial photos were converted to digital form and georeferenced using a GIS. Magnetic data were interpolated and processed to produce raster images. Radar satellite imagery and magnetic and electric geophysical data were acquired over the Eolic town of Kyme (Turkey), along the Aegean coast. All data were integrated and analyzed in the GIS environment to infer the buried archaeological features. For each site, a final digital map of the archaeological structures and relevant landforms was produced.

Magnetic gradiometry has revolutionized aeromagnetic surveys, offering high-resolution mapping of subsurface structures and mineral deposits. This review explores the principles, instrumentation, data processing methods, and applications of the technique in geophysical exploration. Recent advancements in sensor technology, particularly the development of superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), have facilitated the implementation of full tensor magnetic gradiometry (FTMG), enabling higher-resolution subsurface characterization. The integration of these systems with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has significantly enhanced survey adaptability and spatial coverage. Furthermore, advanced data processing methodologies, such as multifractal singular value decomposition (MSVD) and optimized empirical mode decomposition (EMD) techniques, have substantially improved noise suppression and anomaly detection capabilities in geophysical datasets. Novel edge detection filters and 3D inversion algorithms have improved interpretation capabilities. Magnetic gradiometry has found applications in mineral exploration, hydrocarbon detection, geological mapping, and archaeological investigations. Its integration with other geophysical methods has proven effective for comprehensive subsurface characterization. While challenges persist in noise reduction and interpretation ambiguities, ongoing research in sensor technology, data processing, and integration with artificial intelligence promises to expand the capabilities of this powerful geophysical exploration technique.

This chapter explores the use of UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) for the use of archaeological investigations and heritage management at the historic sugar plantation of Betty’s Hope, Antigua. While the acquisition of low flying aerial imagery, such as kite photography, has been common practice within archaeological research, recent software innovations coupling photogrammetry and UAV technologies are providing new tools for exploration. Two different approaches for UAV acquisition are explored in this chapter: the first for use within archaeological excavations and the second for use at studying the landscape. Both have particular implications for heritage management, as the use of structure from motion (SfM) methodology coupled with aerial imagery can be used to produce an accurate 3D surface model of the site that is akin to site scanners and LiDAR technology. The important differences and limitations to these technologies are discussed.

A non‐intrusive investigation integrating complementary technologies was carried out at four vast archaeological settlements located in the northern part of Apulia (Southern Italy). An aerial photographic survey combined with a high‐resolution magnetic investigation was used to detect many buried archaeological features. After processing, both crop marks and magnetic anomalies appeared very sharp and well‐defined, outlining the shape and plan of the buried structures with notable accuracy. Furthermore, differential global positioning system measurements were carried out in order to geocode the magnetic grids, to orthorectify the oblique coloured photographs and to make these data sets suitable for input into a GIS; a very good spatial correlation and a more rigorous and comprehensive interpretation of the various data elements were attained. Finally, as a result of this combined and accurate multilayer analysis, an archaeological interpretation was proposed, enabling useful information to be obtained on the transformations that have occurred over time at these study sites. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Archaeological evidence has demonstrated that the Bujang Valley is Malaysia's richest archaeological site and served as the primary coastal centre. A study in the Bujang Valley found monuments related to trading activities and others that functioned as a temple related to the Hindu-Buddhist period. The main purpose of this study was to resolve issues and problems arising from previous studies related to the Bujang Valley civilisation, particularly in terms of iron studies. Geophysics plays a vital role in assisting archaeologists to obtain excellent preliminary results before they proceed with excavation and digging works. Therefore, the 2-D resistivity and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) methods were conducted to locate and map the potential iron smelting site at Site B2 (SB2). Three main characteristics that can be observed on the surface are a mound area, exposed clay bricks and surface finds. Two-D resistivity showed the resistivity values of a possible buried structure, with values > 800 Ωm. Radargram profiles showed the highest amplitude, indicating the reflections uncovered in the location in certain survey lines. This paper presents the first summary of research on the metallurgical sites in the Bujang Valley, the most important site in Malaysia. Geophysical methods, which rely on a physical contrast between buried archaeological features and the properties of the surrounding subsoil, can assist archaeological investigations.