Abstract
Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonosis that frequently occurs in tropical and subtropical countries. Leptospira enters the host through wounds or mucous membranes and spreads to the whole body through the blood, causing systemic infection. Kidneys are the preferential site where Leptospira accumulates, especially in the renal interstitium and renal tubule epithelial cells. Clinical symptoms in humans include high fever, jaundice, renal failure, and severe multiple-organ failure (Weil’s syndrome). Surface-exposed antigens are located at the outermost layer of Leptospira and these potential virulence factors are likely involved in primary host-pathogen interactions, adhesion, and/or invasion. Using the knockout/knockdown techniques to the evaluation of pathogenicity in the virulence factor are the most direct and effective methods and many virulence factors are evaluated including lipopolysaccharides (LPS), Leptospira lipoprotein 32 (LipL32), Leptospira ompA domain protein 22 (Loa22), LipL41, LipL71, Leptospira immunoglobulin-like repeat A (LigA), LigB, and LipL21. In this review, we will discuss the structure, functions, and dynamics of these virulence factors and the roles of these virulence factors in Leptospira pathogenicity. In addition, a protein family with special Leucine-rich repeat (LRR) will also be discussed for their vital role in Leptospira pathogenicity. Finally, these surface-exposed antigens are discussed in the application of the diagnosis target for leptospirosis and compared with the serum microscope agglutination test (MAT), the gold standard for leptospirosis.
Highlights
Leptospirosis is a common zoonotic disease transmitted by animals, and the importance of international emerging and re-emerging of infectious diseases as a consequence of global warming and humid environment, common after flooding occurs [1–3]
In LigA and LigB, the authors used transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs) to repress the expression of the LigA and LigB and the results demonstrated that LigA and LigB played potential roles in Leptospira pathogenicity [34]
Leptospirosis is a neglected zoonotic infectious disease common in tropical and subtropical regions and is often misdiagnosed because its symptoms are similar to many other infectious diseases
Summary
Leptospirosis is a common zoonotic disease transmitted by animals, and the importance of international emerging and re-emerging of infectious diseases as a consequence of global warming and humid environment, common after flooding occurs [1–3]. Weil’s disease occurs only in severe leptospirosis, manifesting as AKI or renal failure with hepatomegaly and liver function damage [2]. Use of antibiotics can further prevent leptospirosis from progressing to severe disease. In the process of infection with Leptospira, epithelial cells and the immune system trigger an inflammatory response, especially through the production of cytokines. This process is essential for the early elimination of pathogens. IL-1b, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and TNF-α, which were induced by Leptospira virulence factors, were found to be a positive relationship with the severity of the disease of Leptospira [13]. We will focus on the Leptospira virulence factors that participated in recognizing of the innate immunity components and inducing the inflammation cytokines expression. The regulation and the structure dynamic of Leptospira virulence factors to activate the innate immunity components
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