Influenza update: Activity on the rise

Overall, the prevalence of illness attributable to vaccine-preventable diseases is greater among adults than among children. Adults are recommended to receive vaccinations based on their age, underlying medical conditions, lifestyle, prior vaccinations, and other considerations. Updated vaccination recommendations from CDC are published annually in the U.S. Adult Immunization Schedule. Despite longstanding recommendations for use of many vaccines, vaccination coverage among U.S. adults is low. August 2013-June 2014 (for influenza vaccination) and January-December 2014 (for pneumococcal, tetanus and diphtheria [Td] and tetanus and diphtheria with acellular pertussis [Tdap], hepatitis A, hepatitis B, herpes zoster, and human papillomavirus [HPV] vaccination). The National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) is a continuous, cross-sectional national household survey of the noninstitutionalized U.S. civilian population. In-person interviews are conducted throughout the year in a probability sample of households, and NHIS data are compiled and released annually. The survey objective is to monitor the health of the U.S. population and provide estimates of health indicators, health care use and access, and health-related behaviors. Compared with data from the 2013 NHIS, increases in vaccination coverage occurred for Tdap vaccine among adults aged ≥19 years (a 2.9 percentage point increase to 20.1%) and herpes zoster vaccine among adults aged ≥60 years (a 3.6 percentage point increase to 27.9%). Aside from these modest improvements, vaccination coverage among adults in 2014 was similar to estimates from 2013 (for influenza coverage, similar to the 2012-13 season). Influenza vaccination coverage among adults aged ≥19 years was 43.2%. Pneumococcal vaccination coverage among high-risk persons aged 19-64 years was 20.3% and among adults aged ≥65 years was 61.3%. Td vaccination coverage among adults aged ≥19 years was 62.2%. Hepatitis A vaccination coverage among adults aged ≥19 years was 9.0%. Hepatitis B vaccination coverage among adults aged ≥19 years was 24.5%. HPV vaccination coverage among adults aged 19-26 years was 40.2% for females and 8.2% for males. Racial/ethnic differences in coverage persisted for all seven vaccines, with higher coverage generally for whites compared with most other groups. Adults without health insurance were significantly less likely than those with health insurance to report receipt of influenza vaccine (aged ≥19 years), pneumococcal vaccine (aged 19-64 years with high-risk conditions and aged ≥65 years), Td vaccine (aged ≥19 years), Tdap vaccine (aged ≥19 years and 19-64 years), hepatitis A vaccine (aged ≥19 years overall and among travelers), hepatitis B vaccine (aged ≥19 years, 19-49 years, and 19-59 years with diabetes), herpes zoster vaccine (aged ≥60 years and 60-64 years), and HPV vaccine (females aged 19-26 years and males aged 19-26 years). Adults who reported having a usual place for health care generally were more likely to receive recommended vaccinations than those who did not have a usual place for health care, regardless of whether they had health insurance. Vaccination coverage was significantly higher among those reporting one or more physician contacts in the past year compared with those who had not visited a physician in the past year, regardless of whether they had health insurance. Even among adults who had health insurance and ≥10 physician contacts within the past year, 23.8%-88.8% reported not having received vaccinations that were recommended either for all persons or for those with some specific indication. Overall, vaccination coverage among U.S.-born respondents was significantly higher than that of foreign-born respondents with few exceptions (influenza vaccination [adults aged 19-49 years], hepatitis A vaccination [adults aged ≥19 years], hepatitis B vaccination [adults with diabetes aged ≥60 years], and HPV vaccination [males aged 19-26 years]). Overall, increases in adult vaccination coverage are needed. Although modest gains occurred in Tdap vaccination coverage among adults aged ≥19 years and herpes zoster vaccination coverage among adults aged ≥60 years, coverage for other vaccines and risk groups did not improve, and racial/ethnic disparities persisted for routinely recommended adult vaccines. Coverage for all vaccines for adults remained low, and missed opportunities to vaccinate adults continued. Although having health insurance coverage and a usual place for health care are associated with higher vaccination coverage, these factors alone do not assure optimal adult vaccination coverage. Assessing associations with vaccination is important for understanding factors that contribute to low coverage rates and to disparities in vaccination, and for implementing strategies to improve vaccination coverage. Practices that have been demonstrated to improve vaccination coverage should be used. These practices include assessment of patients' vaccination indications by health care providers and routine recommendation and offer of needed vaccines to adults, implementation of reminder-recall systems, use of standing-order programs for vaccination, and assessment of practice-level vaccination rates with feedback to staff members. For vaccination to be improved among those least likely to be up-to-date on recommended adult vaccines, efforts also are needed to identify adults who do not have a regular provider or insurance and who report fewer health care visits.

Assessing factors associated with low coverage rates and disparities in vaccination is important for implementing strategies to improve vaccination coverage. Evidence-based practices that have been demonstrated to improve vaccination coverage should be used. These practices include assessment of patients' vaccination indications by health care providers and routine recommendation and offer of needed vaccines to adults, implementation of reminder-recall systems, use of standing-order programs for vaccination, and assessment of practice-level vaccination rates with feedback to staff members. For vaccination coverage to be improved among those who reported lower coverage rates of recommended adult vaccines, efforts also are needed to identify adults who do not have a regular provider or insurance and who report fewer health care visits.

Substantial improvement in adult vaccination uptake is needed to reduce the burden of vaccine-preventable diseases. Following the Standards for Adult Immunization Practice (https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/adults/for-practice/standards/index.html), all providers should routinely assess adults' vaccination status at every clinical encounter, strongly recommend appropriate vaccines, either offer needed vaccines or refer their patients to another provider who can administer the needed vaccines, and document vaccinations received by their patients in an immunization information system.

Reducing the Risk of Vaccine Preventable Diseases During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Herpes Zoster Eye Disease: New Ways to Combat an Old Foe?

BACKGROUND . The incidence of pertussis in the United States has been increasing. Adult vaccination is important to reduce disease burden and prevent transmission to infants at high risk of complications. The tetanus-diphtheria-acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine has been available in the United States since 2005 and is indicated as a one-time replacement for the routine tetanus-diphtheria (Td) booster. However, among adults receiving tetanus vaccination, only about half receive Tdap. PURPOSE . To identify predictors of adult Tdap vaccination among individuals who receive tetanus vaccine. METHODS . National Health Interview Survey data from 2008 were analyzed in 2011. Respondents were 18 to 64 years old, received tetanus vaccination during 2005-2008, and were aware if it contained pertussis. Predictors of Tdap vaccination were identified with multivariate logistic regression using procedures for complex survey methods. RESULTS . Overall, 51.1% of respondents received Tdap. Vaccination was less likely for those 50 to 64 years old compared with those 18 to 24 years old (odds ratio [OR] = 0.61, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.38-0.96). Some college education was associated with higher odds of vaccination compared with lower education levels (OR = 1.55, 95% CI = 1.16-2.07). Having 2 to 3 office visits (OR = 2.01, 95% CI = 1.32-3.06) or 4 to 9 office visits (OR = 1.60, 95% CI = 1.06-2.42) in the previous year increased the odds of vaccination compared with no visits. Individuals with functional limitation due to illness had lower odds compared with no limitation (OR = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.54-0.91). CONCLUSIONS . In 2008, 51.1% of adult Td vaccinations included pertussis, suggesting continued efforts to remove barriers are needed. Interventions should target older, functionally impaired, and educationally disadvantaged populations.

Inequities in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine and booster coverage may contribute to future disparities in morbidity and mortality within and between Massachusetts (MA) communities. We conducted a population-based cross-sectional study of primary series vaccination and booster coverage 18 months into the general population vaccine rollout. We obtained public-use data on residents vaccinated and boosted by ZIP code (and by age group: 5 to 19, 20 to 39, 40 to 64, 65+) from MA Department of Public Health, as of October 10, 2022. We constructed population denominators for postal ZIP codes by aggregating census tract population estimates from the 2015-2019 American Community Survey. We excluded nonresidential ZIP codes and the smallest ZIP codes containing 1% of the state's population. We mapped variation in ZIP code-level primary series vaccine and booster coverage and used regression models to evaluate the association of these measures with ZIP code-level socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. Because age is strongly associated with COVID-19 severity and vaccine access/uptake, we assessed whether observed socioeconomic and racial/ethnic inequities persisted after adjusting for age composition and plotted age-specific vaccine and booster coverage by deciles of ZIP code characteristics. We analyzed data on 418 ZIP codes. We observed wide geographic variation in primary series vaccination and booster rates, with marked inequities by ZIP code-level education, median household income, essential worker share, and racial/ethnic composition. In age-stratified analyses, primary series vaccine coverage was very high among the elderly. However, we found large inequities in vaccination rates among younger adults and children, and very large inequities in booster rates for all age groups. In multivariable regression models, each 10 percentage point increase in "percent college educated" was associated with a 5.1 (95% confidence interval (CI) 3.9 to 6.3, p < 0.001) percentage point increase in primary series vaccine coverage and a 5.4 (95% CI 4.5 to 6.4, p < 0.001) percentage point increase in booster coverage. Although ZIP codes with higher "percent Black/Latino/Indigenous" and higher "percent essential workers" had lower vaccine coverage (-0.8, 95% CI -1.3 to -0.3, p < 0.01; -5.5, 95% CI -7.3 to -3.8, p < 0.001), these associations became strongly positive after adjusting for age and education (1.9, 95% CI 1.0 to 2.8, p < 0.001; 4.8, 95% CI 2.6 to 7.1, p < 0.001), consistent with high demand for vaccines among Black/Latino/Indigenous and essential worker populations within age and education groups. Strong positive associations between "median household income" and vaccination were attenuated after adjusting for age. Limitations of the study include imprecision of the estimated population denominators, lack of individual-level sociodemographic data, and potential for residential ZIP code misreporting in vaccination data. Eighteen months into MA's general population vaccine rollout, there remained large inequities in COVID-19 primary series vaccine and booster coverage across MA ZIP codes, particularly among younger age groups. Disparities in vaccination coverage by racial/ethnic composition were statistically explained by differences in age and education levels, which may mediate the effects of structural racism on vaccine uptake. Efforts to increase booster coverage are needed to limit future socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities in COVID-19 morbidity and mortality.

BackgroundInequities in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine and booster coverage may contribute to future disparities in morbidity and mortality within and between Massachusetts (MA) communities.Methods and findingsWe conducted a population-based cross-sectional study of primary series vaccination and booster coverage 18 months into the general population vaccine rollout. We obtained public-use data on residents vaccinated and boosted by ZIP code (and by age group: 5 to 19, 20 to 39, 40 to 64, 65+) from MA Department of Public Health, as of October 10, 2022. We constructed population denominators for postal ZIP codes by aggregating census tract population estimates from the 2015–2019 American Community Survey. We excluded nonresidential ZIP codes and the smallest ZIP codes containing 1% of the state’s population. We mapped variation in ZIP code-level primary series vaccine and booster coverage and used regression models to evaluate the association of these measures with ZIP code-level socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. Because age is strongly associated with COVID-19 severity and vaccine access/uptake, we assessed whether observed socioeconomic and racial/ethnic inequities persisted after adjusting for age composition and plotted age-specific vaccine and booster coverage by deciles of ZIP code characteristics.We analyzed data on 418 ZIP codes. We observed wide geographic variation in primary series vaccination and booster rates, with marked inequities by ZIP code-level education, median household income, essential worker share, and racial/ethnic composition. In age-stratified analyses, primary series vaccine coverage was very high among the elderly. However, we found large inequities in vaccination rates among younger adults and children, and very large inequities in booster rates for all age groups. In multivariable regression models, each 10 percentage point increase in “percent college educated” was associated with a 5.1 (95% confidence interval (CI) 3.9 to 6.3, p < 0.001) percentage point increase in primary series vaccine coverage and a 5.4 (95% CI 4.5 to 6.4, p < 0.001) percentage point increase in booster coverage. Although ZIP codes with higher “percent Black/Latino/Indigenous” and higher “percent essential workers” had lower vaccine coverage (−0.8, 95% CI −1.3 to −0.3, p < 0.01; −5.5, 95% CI −7.3 to −3.8, p < 0.001), these associations became strongly positive after adjusting for age and education (1.9, 95% CI 1.0 to 2.8, p < 0.001; 4.8, 95% CI 2.6 to 7.1, p < 0.001), consistent with high demand for vaccines among Black/Latino/Indigenous and essential worker populations within age and education groups. Strong positive associations between “median household income” and vaccination were attenuated after adjusting for age. Limitations of the study include imprecision of the estimated population denominators, lack of individual-level sociodemographic data, and potential for residential ZIP code misreporting in vaccination data.ConclusionsEighteen months into MA’s general population vaccine rollout, there remained large inequities in COVID-19 primary series vaccine and booster coverage across MA ZIP codes, particularly among younger age groups. Disparities in vaccination coverage by racial/ethnic composition were statistically explained by differences in age and education levels, which may mediate the effects of structural racism on vaccine uptake. Efforts to increase booster coverage are needed to limit future socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities in COVID-19 morbidity and mortality.

UK experience of herpes zoster vaccination can inform varicella zoster virus policies

To determine the reactogenicity and immunogenicity of a fourth dose of 2 three-component acellular pertussis vaccines combined with diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis (DTaP) when administered at preschool age to children primed in infancy with 3 doses of the same DTaP and who had received a diphtheria-tetanus (DT) dose at the age of 12 months. Local health units of 4 Italian regions. Three thousand five hundred twenty-two children, who had been randomized in the first year of life to be immunized with a DTaP vaccine by either SmithKline Beecham or Chiron Biocine, were offered a booster of the same vaccine or, if refusing, a DT vaccine at the age of 5 to 6 years. Families of children were aware of the vaccine administered. The occurrence of adverse events was compared between the children who received a DTaP booster and those boosted with a DT only. Antibody titers to pertussis vaccine components (pertussis toxin, filamentous hemoagglutinin, and pertactin) were determined on 558 paired sera taken before and 30 days after the DTaP booster administration. Four episodes of temperature >/=39.5 degrees C, 2 in each DTaP group, were recorded. Fever >/=38 degrees C occurred infrequently in both DTaP and DT recipients (DTaP range: 2.5%-2.8%; DT range: 0%-4.8%), as did irritability (DTaP range: 10.1%-11.7%; DT range: 7.4%-12.6%). The frequency of local reactions was significantly higher for DTaP recipients (range: 44.0%-52.8%), with respect to DT recipients (range: 29.5%-44.4%). Extensive local reactions were observed in 1.2% of DTaP recipients and in.5% of DT recipients. Both DTaP vaccines induced high antibody titers against pertussis toxin, filamentous hemoagglutinin, and pertactin, with an increase of >10 times the prebooster geometric mean titers. A booster dose of DTaP at preschool age in children primed with the same acellular pertussis vaccine is safe and immunogenic. However, the frequency of local reactions is higher compared with that following primary immunization and with that following booster with DT only, and parents should be informed of the potential for these reactions to occur.

Vaccination

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Recommended Immunization Schedules for Persons Aged 0 Through 18 Years—United States, 2015

Prevention and Control of Seasonal Influenza With Vaccines: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)—United States, 2014–15 Influenza Season

OBJECTIVE: The key component of preventive health care is adult immunization. The aim of this study was to assess the patients’ knowledge about adult vaccination and the vaccination rates of patients admitted to the family medicine outpatient clinics. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 442 patients were included in the study. Patient demographic and clinic characteristics were evaluated. Patients' vaccination status with influenza, pneumococcal vaccine, herpes zoster, and tetanus and their knowledge levels about adult vaccines were questioned. RESULTS: The median age of the patients was 42 (min-max: 18-97) and 227 (51.4%) of them were female. Vaccination rates were found 32.6% for tetanus, 21.7% for influenza, 3.6% for pneumococcal, and 2.5% for herpes zoster. Patients with co-morbidities vaccination rates were found to be very low. The pneumococcal vaccination rate was 2.8%, the tetanus vaccination rate was 19.7% , and the influenza vaccination rate was 33.8% in geriatric patients. No patient older than 65 has ever received the zona vaccination. The rate of patients who had herpes zoster, pneumococcal vaccine, and tetanus vaccine was higher among university graduates. Fear of side effects (20%), difficulty in accessing the vaccine (6%), high vaccination prices (1%) were among the reasons why patients did not have vaccinated, and 16% of the patients stated that they did not believe in the benefits of vaccine. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, we are still far below the desired levels of adult vaccination in our study population, and it is important to increase patients awareness of adult immunizations.

Estimates of vaccination coverage during pregnancy and identification of disparities in vaccination coverage can inform vaccination campaigns and programs. We reported the prevalence of being offered or told to get the influenza vaccine by a health care provider (hereinafter, provider); influenza vaccination coverage during the 12 months before delivery; and tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccination coverage during pregnancy among women with a recent live birth in the United States. We analyzed 2020 data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System from 42 US jurisdictions (n = 41 673). We estimated the overall prevalence of being offered or told to get the influenza vaccine by a provider and influenza vaccination coverage during the 12 months before delivery. We estimated Tdap vaccination coverage during pregnancy from 21 jurisdictions with available data (n = 22 020) by jurisdiction and select characteristics. In 2020, 84.9% of women reported being offered or told to get the influenza vaccine, and 60.9% received it, ranging from 35.0% in Puerto Rico to 79.7% in Massachusetts. Influenza vaccination coverage was lower among women who were not offered or told to get the influenza vaccine (21.4%) than among women who were offered or told to get the vaccine (68.1%). Overall, 72.7% of women received the Tdap vaccine, ranging from 52.8% in Mississippi to 86.7% in New Hampshire. Influenza and Tdap vaccination coverage varied by all characteristics examined. These results can inform vaccination programs and strategies to address disparities in vaccination coverage during pregnancy and may inform vaccination efforts for other infectious diseases among pregnant women.