IMPORTANCE OF TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS IN EXPLAINING FISH COMMUNITY STRUCTURE IN AGRICULTURAL HEADWATER STREAMS

This study examined conservation easements and their effectiveness at reducing phosphorus and solids transport to streams. The U.S. Geological Survey cooperated with the Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources and worked collaboratively with the Hawk Creek Watershed Project to examine the West Fork Beaver Creek Basin in Renville County, which has the largest number of Reinvest In Minnesota land retirement contracts in the State (as of 2013). Among all conservation easement programs, a total of 24,218 acres of agricultural land were retired throughout Renville County, and 2,718 acres were retired in the West Fork Beaver Creek Basin from 1987 through 2012. Total land retirement increased steadily from 1987 until 2000. In 2000, land retirement increased sharply because of the Minnesota River Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program, then leveled off when the program ended in 2002. Streamflow data were collected during 1999 through 2011, and total phosphorus and total suspended solids data were collected during 1999 through 2012. During this period, the highest peak streamflow of 1,320 cubic feet per second was in March 2010. Total phosphorus and total suspended solids are constituents that tend to increase with increases in streamflow. Annual flow-weighted mean total-phosphorus concentrations ranged from 0.140 to 0.759 milligrams per liter, and annual flow-weighted mean total suspended solids concentrations ranged from 21.3 to 217 milligrams per liter. Annual flow-weighted mean total phosphorus and total suspended solids concentrations decreased steadily during the first 4 years of water-quality sample collection. A downward trend in flow-weighted mean total-phosphorus concentrations was significant from 1999 through 2008; however, flowweighted total-phosphorus concentrations increased substantially in 2009, and the total phosphorus trend was no longer significant. The high annual flow-weighted mean concentrations for total phosphorus and total suspended solids in 2009 were affected by outlier concentrations documented in March 2009. Agricultural land-retirement data only were available through 2008; therefore, it was not possible to compare total phosphorus and total suspended solids concentrations to agricultural land-retirement data for 2009–11. A downward trend in annual flow-weighted mean total-phosphorus concentrations was related significantly to annual land retirement for 1999–2008. The relation between annual flow-weighted mean total suspended solids concentration and annual land retirement was not statistically significant for 1999–2008. If land-retirement data had been available for 2009–11, it is possible that the relation between total phosphorus and land retirement would no longer be evident because of the marked increase in flow-weighted concentrations during 2009. Alternatively, the increase in annual flow-weighted mean total-phosphorus concentrations during 2009–11 may be because of other factors, including industrial discharges, increases in drain tile installation, changes in land use including decreases in agricultural land retirement after 2008, increases in erosion, increases in phosphorus applications to fields, or unknown causes. Inclusion of land-retirement effects in agency planning along with other factors adds perspective with regard to the broader picture of interdependent systems and allows agencies to make informed decisions on the benefits of perpetual easements compared to limited duration easements.

Deer Creek Reservoir, located in Utah, supplies municipal and agricultural water for Utah and Salt Lake counties. During the past four decades the high levels of total phosphorus and dissolved oxygen in the water have introduced both taste and odor problems from algae growth, which have necessitated additional treatment to clean the water. In an attempt to discover why late summer algae blooms continue to persist at Deer Creek, the Brigham Young University Deer Creek Research Group collected data using several water quality laboratory tests on samples from 11 different sampling sites within the reservoir: total solids (TS), total suspended solids (TSS), total volatile suspended solids (TVSS), and phosphate. These tests were performed on samples collected during the summers of 2010 (May through October) and 2011 (April through November). Samples from Secchi depth were used for this analysis because of excessive variability introduced if samples from above and below the thermocline and at bottom layers of the reservoir were included. The purpose of this study is to determine if any correlations exists between these three measurements: solid, phosphate, and Secchi depths. We used total suspended solids as an indicator for algal mass. We suspect that phosphate is being trapped in solid material, specifically sediment, and being released into the reservoir slowly over time. Our analysis shows that solids at Deer Creek do not exhibit significant correlations with phosphate or Secchi depths. We suggest that a different approach to the phosphate problem be used that we should analyze and correlate Deer Creek phosphate with sediment oxygen demand (SOD) measurements taken using SOD chambers to correlate algae with potential phosphate release from sediments.

Remote sensing analysis of rainstorm effects on sediment concentrations in Apalachicola Bay, USA

An integrated approach of biological and chemical analyses was used to determine theimpact of land use on stream health in four sub-watersheds along Sweetwater Creek in southeastTennessee. By monitoring the mass loading of water quality constituents from flow proportionalsamples and determining an Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) and an Ephemoroptera, Plecoptera, andTrichoptera (EPT) taxa count, a comparison was made of the impact of land-use on water quality.The Sweetwater Creek watershed, which covers 6,216 ha, was subdivided into four sub-watershedsbased on the following land uses: Agricultural (1,943 ha), Rural (1,166 ha), Mixed (1,295 ha), andUrban (1,632 ha). A stage-discharge curve was developed for each sub-watershed sampling site.The stream stage was monitored using a water level sensor connected to a datalogger. Based onthe stream level, the flow volume was calculated and accumulated in the datalogger until a presetvalue was reached which triggered a pump sampler. Laboratory analyses from these flowproportional samples along with corresponding stream discharge values allowed the calculation ofmass loading of the stream. With these data, direct comparisons were made between the subwatershedsfor the following: chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and total suspended solids (TSS). While manychemical measures of water constituents are frequently used to quantify water quality, a biologicalhealth assessment, using indicator species, may also be used to determine water quality. Theresults of the mass loading analyses showed the Rural, Mixed, and Agricultural sub-watersheds weresimilar. In the Mixed sub-watershed, TSS values decreased, which was probably due to streamshape, which caused the water velocity to decrease resulting in sediment deposition. Mass loadingfrom the Urban sub-watershed was as much as ten times greater for each of the constituents duringthe storm event evaluated. The Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) value, which is based on the presenceor absence of fish species, was very poor (22) for the Urban stream reach; the Mixed and Ruralstream reaches were rated poor (32), and the Agricultural stream reach was rated poor/fair (38).The Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) ratings, which are based on the count oftaxa of these three orders of macroinvertebrates that are known to be sensitive to pollution, weresimilar to the IBI ratings; the Urban stream reach yielded the lowest counts, The Mixed andAgricultural stream reaches had slightly higher counts than the Urban reach, and the Rural streamreach had the highest EPT taxa count for each of the three sampling events. A habitat assessmentanalysis of the stream reaches supported the conclusions from the IBI index and EPT taxa count.

We modified the Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) to characterize the fish assemblages and evaluate the biotic integrity of four forested streams in the Lower Ouachita Mountains Ecoregion, Arkansas. We related differences in IBI scores with corresponding differences in chemical and physical characteristics of the streams, including the varying intensities of forest management. Analysis of variance and comparison of mean IBI scores among the four streams revealed significant differences between reference and even-aged treatments and between even-aged and uneven-aged treatments (P < 0.05). Turbidity and total suspended solids were inversely related to IBI scores. Further refinement of the IBI should enable its use in the Ouachita Mountains Ecoregion to help assess site impacts, monitor trends in stream biotic integrity, and assess effectiveness of forest best management practices.

Green roof technology is used to reduce the quantity of stormwater runoff, but questions remain regarding its impact on quality. This study analyzed the total suspended solids (TSS) in and the turbidity of runoff from green roof growth media mixed with composted pine bark in an indoor pot study. The results showed that there were elevated levels of TSS and turbidity in the runoff that decreased over time for all growth media. Both TSS and turbidity are affected by the type of growth media. Lava and haydite had higher mean TSS and mean turbidity than arkalyte and bottom ash. Vegetation reduced the mean turbidity and mean TSS of the first flush by an average of 53% and 63%, respectively, but generally had no statistically significant effect thereafter. The results indicate that the media, rather than the vegetation, has a greater effect on TSS and turbidity in the runoff. In areas with stringent water quality regulations for stormwater runoff from developed sites, media selection may be an important consideration. It may also be necessary in these regions to ensure that the roof is planted prior to receiving rainfall to minimize the first flush effect and that any irrigation does not result in runoff.

Construction sites can be a major source of sediment, a common pollutant in surface waters, because steep slopes are often bare during active construction. The use of mulch and polymers has been found to reduce erosion rates and improve runoff water quality on construction sites. Different erosion control methods on steep slopes (2:1) consisting of straw, straw plus 37 kg ha−1 (33 lb ac−1) linear anionic polyacrylamide (straw + PAM), and excelsior blankets were evaluated based on runoff water quality, vegetative establishment, or both at six construction sites. Plots (3 to 9 m [10 to 30 ft] wide by 9 m [29.5 ft] long) were established on cut slopes. Runoff was collected at four of six sites by installing plastic barriers to direct a portion of runoff into containers, later analyzed for turbidity and total suspended solids (TSS) in the laboratory. Large differences in water quality were often not statistically significant for individual storms due to high variability. However, when data were averaged across all storm events, the straw + PAM treatment reduced mean runoff turbidity at three of four sites and mean TSS at two of the four sites compared to straw alone. Maximum reductions in turbidity and TSS were 81% and 56%, respectively. Runoff from the excelsior plots had significantly lower turbidity and TSS than straw plots in one of three sites. Compared to straw + PAM, excelsior had significantly higher turbidity at two of three sites and higher TSS at one of three sites. All differences among treatments for individual storm events occurred within the first three events. Vegetative cover was determined in the field, and aboveground vegetation was harvested to determine biomass production. Neither vegetative cover nor biomass were affected by treatment, and average cover was 60% or less for five of the six sites. Rainfall patterns were largely responsible for vegetative growth, with heavier rainfall soon after seeding tending to reduce cover.

Effects of Duration and Intensity of Aeration on Solids Decomposition in Pig Slurry for Odour Control

The effectiveness of various filtration agents in the primary treatment of dairy processing wastewater was investigated in laboratory-scale studies. The filtration agents used were: zeolite, crushed coral, charcoal, sand and crushed coral and sand and glass beads. The effectiveness of the filtration media was determined by testing parameters such as chemical oxygen demand (COD), total solids (TS) and total suspended solids (TSS) before and after filtration of wastewater. Percent reduction of the different parameters as a result of filtration was calculated. Sand combined with crushed coral or glass beads was found to be the most effective filtering medium with an average reduction of 99% in TSS, 93% in COD and 51% in TS. Charcoal filtration resulted in an average 85% reduction in TSS, 83% reduction in COD and 46% reduction in TS. Filtration using crushed coral resulted in an average 83% reduction in TSS, 78% reduction in COD and 39% reduction in TS. Zeolite was the least effective of the four media; it resulted in an average reduction of 78% in TSS, 76% in COD and 30% in TS. The differences among mean values of COD, TSS and TS after the different treatments were analyzed statistically using analysis of variance (ANOVA). When differences among means were found to be statistically significant (p<0.0001), each mean value was compared with every other mean value using Duncan’s multiple range test and least significant difference (LSD) test. Comparison of the mean values indicated the following: No significant difference between means of zeolite and crushed coral treatment. Mean values of COD, TSS, and TS of charcoal treatment were significantly different from the other treatments. Sand combined with crushed coral or glass beads was the most effective filtration agent and the means were significantly different from the means of the other treatments.

Little research has been conducted on the effect of beef feedlot manure amendments on runoff hydrology and soil loss during the transition between continuous and legacy application phases. We conducted a 6 yr (2013–2018) study and utilized surface (0–5 cm) soil collected from a long-term (since 1998) field experiment on a clay loam soil in southern Alberta, Canada. The treatments were stockpiled or composted feedlot manure with straw (ST) or wood-chip (WD) bedding applied at 13, 39, and 77 Mg ha−1 (dry weight). There was also an unamended control and inorganic fertilized treatment (IN). Disturbed surface soil was collected from all treatments after 15 (C15), 16 (C16), and 17 (C17) continual annual applications (2013–2015), and then 1 (L1), 2 (L2), and 3 (L3) yr (2016–2018) after manure applications were discontinued in 2015. The soil was packed into runoff trays, and a Guelph rainfall simulator (70 mm h−1) was used to generate 30 min of runoff. The time to runoff, total runoff depth, and flow-weighted mean concentrations (FWMCs) and mass loads of total suspended solids (TSS) were determined. Mean values of runoff variables were significantly greater for ST than WD in certain years for time to runoff (by 28%–127%), runoff depth (44%), TSS FWMCs (58%–137%), and FWMC loads (28%–230%). Mean TSS was generally significantly greater at the two lower than highest manure rates for FWMC (48%–135%) and loads (21%–253%). Overall, choice of bedding material showed the most potential to maximize infiltration and reduce water and sediment loss.

Climate change intensifies algal biomass resurgence in eutrophic Lake Taihu, China

Effects of broiler carcass bleed time and scald temperature on poultry processing wastewater

Agricultural land use leads to changes in physical and chemical characteristics of sediment that influence macroinvertebrate community diversity and abundance in streams. To the best of our knowledge the joint influence of sediment’s physical and chemical characteristics on stream macroinvertebrates has not been assessed. We measured sediment’s physical and chemical characteristics and sampled macroinvertebrates in eight agricultural headwater streams in Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, United States, in 2017 and 2018 to determine the physical and chemical conditions of the sediment, to evaluate the relationships between physical and chemical characteristics of the sediment, and the relationship of macroinvertebrate communities with the sediment’s physical and chemical characteristics. Sediments within most sites were dominated by sand or silt. pH was suitable for macroinvertebrates and nitrate, herbicide, and trace metal concentrations were below concentration levels anticipated to affect macroinvertebrate survival. Linear mixed effect model analysis results indicated that a physical gradient of percent small gravel and percent silt was positively correlated (p &lt; 0.05) with a chemical gradient of potassium concentrations, magnesium concentrations, and percent total nitrogen in the sediments. Our linear mixed effect model analysis results also indicated that Invertebrate Community Index scores were negatively correlated (p &lt; 0.05) with a chemical gradient of simazine and calcium concentrations and were negatively correlated (p &lt; 0.05) with physical gradient of grain size diversity and percent sand. Our results suggest that watershed management plans need to address physical and chemical degradation of sediment to improve macroinvertebrate biotic integrity within agricultural headwater streams in the Midwestern United States.

This study aimed to evaluate the performance of combined constructed wetland systems (vertical – horizontal flow) in removing organic matter, cultivated with Tifton 85 grass (Cynodon spp.) and cattail (Typha sp.), using pretreated swine wastewater (from anaerobic systems) at variable loading rates. The experimental system was composed of six constructed flooded systems. The flow was frequently monitored by direct measurement, and subsequently, the pH, influent, and effluent concentrations of the variables total solids (TS) and total suspended solids (TSS) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were determined. The results showed that the average removal of total solids (TS) and total suspended solids (TSS) did not change significantly (p &gt; 0.05) with increasing applied load in vertical flooded systems. While statistically significant differences (p &lt; 0.05) were observed for ST in VFCW3 in Phase III (801–540 mg.L−1, 33%) and for TSS in VFCW2, which showed 48% removal in Phase III (122–62 mg.L−1, 48%), indicating that specific configurations can improve system efficiency. On the other hand, the average removal of total suspended solids (TSS) did not change significantly (p &gt; 0.05) with increasing applied load in horizontal flooded systems. However, the average removal of total suspended solids (TSS) increased significantly (p &lt; 0.05) with increasing applied load in horizontal flooded systems. Therefore, it can be concluded that the COD removal efficiencies, in general, increased with the increase in the applied organic load, reaching approximately 50% (307–271 mg.L−1 VFC3 and 307–145 mg.L−1 HFCW3) for the VFCW‐HFCW set.

The disposal of dairy plant processing wastewater in a three‐stage aerated lagoon system was evaluated over a one‐year period. Aerators were fixed on the lagoon surfaces and designed to mechanically supply oxygen to the system. Monitored pollution parameters included flow‐rate, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), total solids (TS), and pH. Microbiological parameters studied were heterotrophic plate count (HPC) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as measured by relative light units (RLU). The average daily effluent flow‐rate from the lagoon system was 163.3 x 103 L/d with 7 mg/L BOD5, 122 mg/L COD, 31 mg/L TSS, 652 mg/L TS, and 7.69 pH of effluent. An average BOD removal of 97% was achieved from the first lagoon sampling point to final pffluent, with 89% removal of COD, 93% removal of TSS, and 49% removal of TS. Overall, BOD was strongly correlated with the COD, TSS, TS, and pH. Also, COD showed a significant correlation with TSS and TS. Anothe...