IMPACT OF CULTIVATION AND COLLECTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS: GLOBAL TRENDS AND ISSUES

With the increased realization that many wild medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) Species are being over-exploited, a number of agencies are recommending that wild species be brought into cultivation systems. Others argue sustainable harvest to be the most important conservation strategy for most wild-harvested species, given their contributions to local economies and their greater value to harvesters over the long term. Besides poverty and the breakdown of traditional controls, the major challenges for sustainable wild-collection include lack of knowledge about sustainable harvest rates and practices, undefined land use rights and lack of legislative and policy guidance. Identifying the conservation benefits and costs of the different production system for MAP should help guide policies as whether species conservation should take place in nature or the nursery, or both.

Medicinal and aromatic plants are offered in a wide variety of products on the market. At least every fourth flowering plant is used. The enormous demand in botanicals results in a huge trade from local to international level. In the 1990s, the reported annual world-wide importation of pharmaceutical plants amounted on average to 400,000 t valued at USD 1,224 million. The international trade is dominated by only few countries. About 80 % of the world-wide imports and exports are allotted to only 12 countries with the dominance of temperate Asian and European countries. Whereas Japan and the Republic of Korea are the main consumers of pharmaceutical plants, and China and India are the world’s leading producing nations, Hong Kong, the USA and Germany stand out as important trade centres. Until now, the production of botanicals relies to a large degree on wildcollection. However, utilization and commerce of wild plant resources are not detrimental in themselves, but, for example, the increasing commercial collection, largely unmonitored trade, and habitat loss lead to an incomparably growing pressure on plant populations in the wild. World-wide an estimated 9,000 medicinal plant species are threatened. Conservation concepts and measures which have to meet future supply and the provisions of species conservation range from resource management, cultivation, shifting processing from consumer to source countries, species conservation to trade restrictions or even trade bans. Medicinal and aromatic plants are of high priority for conservation action, as wild-crafting will certainly continue to play a significant role in their future trade: the sustainable commercial use of their biological resources may provide a financial instrument for nature conservation. INTRODUCTION Phytopharmaceuticals, also some pharmaceuticals, herbal remedies, dietary supplements, homeopathics, medicinal and herbal teas, liqueurs, spirits, sweets, aromas and essences, perfumes, cosmetics, colouring agents, varnishes, fireworks, and detergents – plant-based products offered in a wide variety on the market. Whereas in some goods the herbal ingredients are evident, e.g. in teas or in herbal remedies where they are declared on the packaging, in other products the botanically source is more secret: the bitter taste of Campari is based on the Common Centaury (Centaurium erythraea), and the fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) contains steroid-saponins which are extracted for use in oral contraceptives. The use of botanical raw material is in many cases much cheaper than to use chemical alternative substances. As a consequence, there is an enormous demand in botanicals resulting in a huge trade, on local, regional, national and international level for domestic use and for commercial trade. Different aspects are associated with the trade in medicinal and aromatic plant material, the trade structure, trade volumes and values, the herbs used and their production, the ecological and socio-economic impacts of the trade, and the management of the botanical resources. Proc. XXVI IHC – Future for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Eds. L.E. Craker et al. Acta Hort. 629, ISHS 2004 Publication supported by Can. Int. Dev. Agency (CIDA) 178 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS IN USE Species in Use World-wide, it is estimated that up to 70,000 species are used in folk medicine (Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1991). The WHO reports over 21,000 plant taxa used for medicinal purposes (Groombridge, 1992). Unfortunately, there is no idea how many species are used in the other areas of use, like cosmetics, spirits or aromas which makes determining exactly the number of all medicinal and aromatic plant species used worldwide impossible. However, it can be stated, that at least every fourth plant is in use, a calculation based upon the estimated total number of 300-350,000 flowering plants. The number of medicinal and aromatic plant species used in some regions are impressive: In India, which is said to have probably the oldest, richest and most diverse cultural traditions in the use of medicinal plants, about 7,500 species are used in ethnomedicines (Shankar and Majumdar, 1997) which is half of the country’s 17,000 Indian native plant species. In China, the total number of medicinal plants used in different parts of the country add up to some 6,000 species according to Xiao (1991) and to over ten thousand according to He and Sheng (1997). Of these, approximately 1,000 plant species are commonly used in Chinese medicine, and about half of these are considered as the main medicinal plants (He and Sheng, 1997). In Africa, over 5,000 plant species are known to be used for medicinal purposes (Iwu, 1993). In Europe with its long tradition in the use of botanicals, about 2,000 medicinal and aromatic plant species are used on a commercial basis (Lange, 1998). In Germany, Lange (1996) identified not less than 1,500 taxa as sources of medicinal and aromatic plant material. In Spain, it is estimated that 800 medicinal and aromatic plant species are used of which 450 species are associated with commercial use (Blanco and Breaux, 1997; Lange, 1998). Geographical Origin of the Species in Use Herbs used in a country can be either indigenous or native to other regions or even continents. The share of both plant groups depends on the country’s cultural preferences, importance of traditional medicines, history, trade relations, and of course of the wealth or poverty of a country. Traditional medicines are playing an important role in many parts of the world. In south and southeast Asia, the Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha medicines are widely distributed and based on not less than 400, 500 respective 1,800 native Indian plant species (Shankar and Majumdar, 1997). The TCM, the traditional medicine of eastern Asia, relies in most cases on indigenous plant species. Traditional healers in many African countries rely on local or at most regional plant material (Marshall, 1998). In Bulgaria, about 750 native plant species, or 20 % of the total flora, are used in folk medicine. Of these, 200300 species are most commonly used (Hardalova, 1997). Further, in Albania, 205 native plant species are used as sources of botanicals (Vaso, 1997; Lange, 1998). In Hungary, some 270 native medicinal and aromatic plant taxa are used, 180-200 of which are officially recognised by the Hungarian Pharmacopoeia (Bernath, 1996). Ozhatay et al. (1997) list a total of 337 native taxa that have been commercially traded in Turkey since at least 1990 (Lange, 2001). From the French pharmacopoeia and lists of medicines Goi et al. (1997; Lange, 1998) noted some 900 taxa, of which almost half are native to Europe. This means, that many countries rely on a major part on their own plant diversity. Many of them cannot afford to import foreign botanicals, finished herbal products or even phytopharmaceuticals and the country’s own “biodiversity” is mainly offered in a crude form or at most as little processed products on the market. On the other side, there are the developed countries which use besides indigenous plant species a lot of non-native species and process them in their well developed pharmaceutical, cosmetic and extract-producing industry. Accordingly, the plant material is offered to the consumers as mainly packed and finished products, and the crude material plays a minor role in the retail trade. This features apply above all to the highly

Since thousands years back approximately around 900 BC, medicinal plants are considered as a source of many biomolecules with therapeutic potential. Herbal medicines are considered as safer, better, physiologically compatible and costeffective. The oldest evidence of medicinal and aromatic plants depicts that with the emergence of human civilization, plants have been considered as the main source to heal and cure various serious ailments. It has been proven that the secondary metabolites e.g. alkaloid, glycosides, flavonoides, steroids etc present in the medicinal plants possesses ability to prevent occurrence of some of the diseases, means medicinal plants acts as a “preventive medicine”. Medicinal plants have a paramount importance and a great interest due to its pharmaceutical, cosmetic and nutritional values. Some plants are also considered as an important source of nutrition and are known to have a variety of compounds with potential therapeutic properties. India is the principal repository of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants or we can say India is one of the rich mega-biodiversity countries of the world. Medicinal plants are “backbone” of traditional medicinal system (TMS). Crude drugs are usually dried parts of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) such as roots, stems, wood, bark, seeds, fruits, flowers, leaves, rhizomes, whole plant etc. that form the essential raw material for the production of medicines in various systems of Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Tibatian, Tribal and Homeopathy. According to the survey of the World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of the world population are using herbs and other traditional medicines for their primary healthcare and have established three kinds of herbal medicines: raw plant material, processed plant material, and herbal products. Now days, variety of available herbs are used throughout the world and they continue to promote good health. As the benefits from medicinal and aromatic plants are recognized, these plants will have a special role for humans in the future. The present review on medicinal and aromatic plants revealed similar combination of studies.

India (8-30 N and 68-97.5 E) exhibits a wide range in topography and climate, which has a bearing on its vegetation and floristic composition. This subcontinent is one of the World’s 12 leading Biodiversity Centres, encompassing 16 different agro-climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones, 25 biotic provinces and about 426 habitats of specific species. It has been estimated that about 45,000 plant species (nearly 20% of the global species) occurs in the Indian Sub-continent. About 3,500 species of both higher and lower plant groups are of medicinal values. More than 80 percent of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) are collected from 17 million hectares of Indian forest land. However, many of these, due to over-exploitation have become rare (Rheum emodi, Aconitum deinorrhizum), threatened (Rauvolfia serpentina, Berberis artistata), or endangered ones (Sassurea lappa, Dioscorea deltoidea). Problems arising out of rapid genetic loss of medicinal plants forced the need for international co-operation and co-ordination to undertake programmes for conservation of medicinal plants to ensure that adequate quantities are available for future generations. Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic species gives scope to improve the quality of the drugs. Merits of commercial cultivation of MAP is the outcome of implementation of number of critical factors like locate-selection; good genetically stable planting materials; good agrotechnological practices; nutrient input; harvesting management and implementation of suitable post harvesting techniques to preserve the end product till smart and effective marketing arrangements are made. There is a growing demand today for plant-based medicines, health products, pharmaceuticals, food supplements, cosmetics etc. in the international market. The international market of medicinal plants is over 60 billion US dollar per year, which is growing at the rate of 7 percent per annum. The present export of herbal raw materials and medicines from India is about US dollar 100-114 million approximately per year. India is one of the major exporter of crude drugs mainly to six developed countries viz. USA, Germany, France, Switzerland, U.K. and Japan, who share between them 75-80 per cent of the total export market. CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS (MAP) IN INDIA Techno-economical Considerations for Cultivation of MAP in India Loss of genetic diversity, particularly related to potential medicinal species has taken place; more so in the Worlds’ tropical rain forests and its conservation aspect has, of late, captured the attention of herbal scientists and experts (Duke, 1985). With emphasis it can be stated that the ultimate solution of medicinal plant conservation is medicinal plant cultivation in a scientific way (Foster, 1993). Botanical producer will desire to optimise yield from production; whereas user or entrepreneur will want to manufacture a product of uniform quality. Environmental factors play dramatic roles on biomass yield and composition, and also on its consistency. Proc. Int. Conf. on MAP Eds. J. Bernath et al. Acta Hort. 576, ISHS 2002 192 The process of selection of geographical site is very important and will have to be tailormade to meet the requirement of a particular botanical or a group of botanicals with ecological homogeneity. Elevation of the region has a profound bearing on successful cultivation of MAP. Indian cultivation of Datura innoxia, Atropa belladona, Catharanthus roseus, Rauvolfia serpentina, Cepecacuanha spp. and Hyoscyamus niger are appropriate examples (Table 1). Slope face is another factor, which determines variations of diurnal light intensity and temperature necessary for better growth and development of MAP. Latitude also have pronounced effect on biomass composition e.g. Atropa belladona. Adequate soil moisture and moderate nutrient status generally meet the requirements for growing MAP in India. However in some cases (e.g. Psyllium, Cassia, Catharanthus, Withania, Rauvolfia, Cymbopogon), the plantation can profitably thrive on low fertility soils of warmer regions. Pyrethrum, Solanum spp., Jasminium and Ocimum spp. can be economically grown over medium fertility soils. In case of Papaver, Dioscorea spp., Mentha spp. and Cymbopogon spp., high fertility soil and liberal irrigation will be necessary for successful growth of plantation. Rained cultivation in India is widely followed in Withania, Cassia, Vetiveria and Eucalyptus citriodora. Medicinal and aromatic crops are generally adapted to a wide range of soil texture and pH. Plantago, Cassia, Cymbopogon growing over light soils become high yielding when grown over loam and clay loam (nearly 80% increase in yield in case of Plantago ovata). Vetiveria is unique for its tolerance to soil alkalinity and periodic flooding and water logging of fields; conditions however producing no adverse effect on total oil yield and its composition. Cinchona, Cephalis and Coptis have preference for acidic soils (5-6 pH); whereas species like Aloe, Pandanus, Urginea, Commiphora are grown in soils of higher pH. Day length have been found to influence growth and development of certain medicinal and aromatic crops in India. Commercial cultivation of Mentha, Glycyrrhiza, Coptis, Humulus prefer more than 14 hours of day length for high crop yield whereas citronella, Pelargonium and Pogostemon are short-day plants and essential oil production can be increased by nearly 25% by satisfying appropriate light requirements to these crops. Senna is a day-neutral plant and cultivation success is independent of prevalent day-light duration. In crops like Solanum, Digitalis, Rauvolfia and Dioscorea, effects of photoperiodic cycles (long days) have also been clearly established (Chatterjee, 1986). Regulatory role of light intensity on improvement of performance of a number of medicinally important crops has been established. In Mentha, ample sunshine is necessary at maturity for higher content of oil and menthol content. Economics of cultivation of this species is very much affected if crops are harvested in rainy or cloudy days due to the fact that higher conversion of menthol into menthone. Amongst other plantation crops, low light intensity favours production like Cephalis; thereby necessitating artificial shading during commercial cultivation. Only 20-25 percent day light intensity is recommended for optimum productivity performance. Berberine content is nearly 10-15 percent higher in roots of Coptis japonica, when on average, 70 percent of incident light is intercepted. Additional light promotes the AP accumulation in Digitalis spp. and Solanum khasianum (Table 2.). Reduced light intensity (nearly 40 %) by growing Cinchona under shade tree increases percentage of quinine and related alkaloids by more than 30 percent; as well as bark yield by 30-40 % (Table 3). Role of atmospheric temperature on success of medicinal and aromatic plant cultivation can also be well exemplified. Pyrethrum growing in southern hills is favoured by lower minimum temperature increasing the yield of dry matter and total pyrethrin contents. In general increasing temperature up to a maximum (prior to physiological damage) favour increased secondary metabolite production in many alkaloid and terpene producing medicinal plants. Composition of secondary metabolite may also be changed. Low temperature favours morphine increase in poppy and decreases the total principle content.

Medicinal plants in homegardens of four ethnic groups in Thailand

BackgroundAlthough the flora of the State of Nuevo León is well known, there are few records of ethnobotancial information. An ethnobotanical study was undertaken in order to know the medicinal plants used by people living at the scrublands and oak-pine forest areas in the southern Nuevo León. Collection of plants specimens and interviews were carried out among the people of the municipalities of Aramberri, Galeana, and Zaragoza. Since former studies in the region are scarce, the aim of this work was to record the medicinal species and their uses in the scrublands and oak-pine forest areas, of southern Nuevo León, Mexico, and also to know if there are differences in the number of species and number of uses knowledge by people.MethodsField work was carried out over a 2 years period; useful plants were collected and a total of 105 people from 46 different villages were interviewed. A database was compiled using data collected by means of semi structured interviews. The data were analyzed by means of non-parametric statistics, using goodness-of-fit test (Chi-squared) (number of species known by people of each municipality, number of uses known by people of each municipality), Chi-squared modified to incorporate the Yates Correction (number of species known by people living at scrublands and oak-pine forest); the Kruskall-Wallis test (number of species known by women and men of the three municipalities), and the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (age and number of species known, and age and number of uses).ResultsA total of 163 medicinal plant species were recorded in the study area, comprising 108 wild and 55 cultivated plants. A total of 117 species were recorded in the oak-pine forest, and 111 in the scrublands area, a total of 68 were recorded in both areas; 68 medicinal species are used in all three municipalities, 40 wild and 28 cultivated. We documented 235 different medicinal uses. The most common plant parts used for medicinal purposes were found to be leaves (123 species), stems (55), fruits (28), roots (17), and bark (14). No differences were noted in the number of medicinal plant species identified among people, but differences were significant in their knowledge with respect to the number of uses among people of the three municipalities studied; people from both, scrublands and oak-pine forest know similar number of species and number of uses. Men and women of the three different municipalities knew statistically the same number of species and number of uses. There was no correlation between resident’s age and number of species known and resident’s age and number of uses either in Galeana or in Aramberri, but, there was high correlation among these variables in Zaragoza.ConclusionIn southern Nuevo León people use at least 5% of the total State flora as medicinal plants, and most of these species are included in few plant families. Most of medicinal species are wild and indigenous to the region. The two most important major plant communities, scrublands and oak-pine forest provide almost the same number of medicinal species. A third of the medicinal flora recorded are used in all three municipalities, most of them are wild. Leaves, stems and fruits are the plant parts most commonly used for healing, and boiling is the most common method used for this purpose. Men and women from the three municipalities are familiar with nearly the same number of species; however, their knowledge of the number of uses varies significantly. In Galeana and Aramberri there was no correlation between a person’s age and number of species recognized, however, in Zaragoza, there existed a high correlation between these two factors.

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPS) represent a consistent part of the natural biodiversity endowment of many countries in Africa. The role and contributions of medicinal plants to healthcare, local economies, cultural integrity and ultimately the well-being of people, particularly the rural poor, have been increasingly acknowledged over the last decade. The demands of the majority of the populace for medicinal plants have been met by indiscriminate harvesting of spontaneous flora, including those in forests. This has resulted in severe loss of habitat and genetic diversity. The utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) as a source of fuel, building material, food, fodder, and fibre, in African countries has, however, led to a resurgence of natural product- based industries and pharmaceutical products. This had been spurred by the interests of the developed countries for traditional medicine and natural products. Furthermore, many African medicinal plants are well-known in the international markets, e.g. Ancistrocladus abbreivatus, a Cameroun plant with anti-HIV potential. Therefore, sustainable management and conservation of these endangered medicinal plant species are important not only because of their value as potential therapeutics, but also due to worldwide reliance on traditional medicinal plants for health. Effective conservation strategies for medicinal plant should take place within four main areas: in-situ andex-situ conservation, education and research. Saving Africa’s medicinal plant resources from extinction calls for intensive management and conservation, more research and increased level of public awareness about our vanishing heritage. Key words: African, health care delivery, medicine, harvesting.

This abstract presents the results of the first 2 years of activity of a three-year project on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in Piedmont, Italy (45° North). Cultivation of MAPs in Italy has a long tradition. The last available data indicate that in Italy there are about 3300 ha cultivated, of which half are cultivated with herbaceous species. The Piedmont Region plays a key role having about 570 ha of herbaceous species until 1999. Recently, there has been a growing interest on the opportunities and potential increase in the cultivation of MAPs. This is particularly true for the area, which is either marginal or abandoned by inhabitants that moved to live in the big cities and suburbs. In fact, the cultivation of MAPs could aid in raising the low farm income typical of these zones. In addition, there is a new approach toward the return of people to rural areas, especially related to organic farming system. Lastly, there is a growing interest among localities to increase agricultural activities relating to social and environmental aspects; such as culture, tourism and education; through the promotion of activities that enhance the restoration and conservation of agricultural land and of the environment. The aim of the present work is to understand the MAPs situation in Piedmont in terms of cultivated surfaces and type of market for these herbaceous species. The results from the project are also intended to offer solutions to implement cost effective key actions for land management in marginal areas. The results for the first two years of the project are presented, with the data from the survey in the region regarding the major areas involved in MAP cultivation. INTRODUCTION Cultivation of MAPs in Italy has a long tradition and nowadays MAP cultivation enters in a concept of rusticity and rediscovery of ancient traditions. The last available data indicate that in Italy there are about 3,300 ha cultivated, of which half are herbaceous species, (bergamot orange, manna ash, sweet orange flowers) cultivated in the south region of Italy (Calabria, Sicilia) (Marzi, 1999; Vender, 2001). The Piedmont (45° North) is the first Italian region in terms of surface cultivated, with 38.6 % of the total national land of herbaceous MAPs. Even though the sector is important, Italy imports more than 173 M€ worth of Map products (ISTAT, 1995), due to foreign greater product availability and cheaper prices. Recently, there has been a growing interest in the opportunity and potential to increase the cultivation of MAPs. This is particularly true for areas which are either marginal or abandoned by inhabitants that moved decades ago to live in cities and suburbs. In fact, the cultivation of MAPs could contribute to the increase of low farm income, typical of these rural areas. In addition, there is a new approach to the return of people to rural areas, especially related to organic farming system. Lastly, there is a positive trend among localities to increase agricultural activities that relate to social and environmental aspects, such as culture, tourism and education, through the promotion of activities that enhance the restoration and conservation of agricultural land and of the environment. MAP production represents a niche of Italian farmers and production-chain operators, which are both scattered throughout the nation, lacking in producer association Proc. XXVI IHC – Future for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Eds. L.E. Craker et al. Acta Hort. 629, ISHS 2004 Publication supported by Can. Int. Dev. Agency (CIDA) 376 organizations and in an adequate extension service. This results in lack of information regarding the real situation in terms of cultivation areas, marketing issues and logistical distribution. Official data regarding the sector impact on Italian agriculture are generally given in aggregated form, impeding the understanding of commodity distribution and farm location (De Donno, 2001). This is especially true and important in the Piedmont Region, which is characterized by a broad topology of lands; ranging from very fertile valleys, to hilly zones and high-altitude mountain areas that are impossible to reach by transportation or communication. Consequently, the Regional government has funded the present research with the objectives of knowing the current situation of MAPs cultivation in Piedmont in terms of cultivated area, farmer peculiarities, and production chain organization; by surveying, collecting information, analyzing data and creating maps of the sector impact in the region. MATERIAL AND METHODS The work consisted of a regional survey and a market investigation. The activity started in the year 2000 and was conducted in the whole Piedmont region. The agricultural information was collected through visits, inspections and the filling of a questionnaire addressed to the different consortia of communes in mountain areas (Mountain Communities), experts of the officinal sector and farmers. The questionnaire data were put in Access database (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA), and then they were graphically represented with a Geographical Information System (ArcView GIS, ESRI, Inc., Redlands, CA, USA). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During this investigation, 154 farms were contacted: 67 in the province of Torino, 48 in the province of Cuneo, 16 in the province of Alessandria and the 23 remaining farms in the provinces of Verbania, Asti, Biella and Novara. No farm was found in the remaining province of Vercelli. Results of the survey indicated that there were ca 590 ha cultivated with medicinal and aromatic herbaceous species in Piedmont region. The distribution of MAP cultivation in the region was revealed to be very diverse from province to province (Fig. 1). More than 90 % of the regional cultivation is concentrated in two provinces (Torino and Cuneo). The most cultivated medicinal and aromatic species in the Region is Mentha piperita (326.2 ha), second is Anthemis nobilis (84.3 ha), then several other species follow in the range between 13 and 19 ha (Artemisia pontica, Cannabis sativa, Lavandula angustifolia, Foeniculum vulgaris); all the other species have a minimal impact in terms of acreage, but include more than 40 species (Table 1). Analyses of data aggregated by altimetrical position revealed that 89% of the hectares are located on plains, 5 % on hills and 6 % in mountain areas (Fig. 2a). Results also indicated that farms are located 49 % on plains (75 farms), 16% on hills (25 farms) and 35 % in mountain areas (54 farms) (Fig. 2b). The ratios between the variables indicate that on plains there are 0.5 farms per hectare, on hills 3.2, and in mountains 5.8. These results are also confirmed by the farm size, which is much bigger in the plain areas than in the hill and mountain areas (Table 2). The mean total farm surface and the surface invested in medicinal and aromatic plants were different according to the farm altitude, in particular: ! the average farm size on the plains is 35.2 ha, of which 19 % cultivated with MAPs, ! the average farm size in the hills is 7.3 ha, of which 14 % cultivated with MAPs, ! the average farm size in the mountains is 4.7 ha, of which 17 % cultivated with MAPs. Consequently, the MAP cultivation has a greater agricultural impact in the plain, while it has a greater employment impact in the hills and mountains. The farm approach in terms of cultivated species, agricultural techniques and systems, production chain and market target changes if the farmers are located either on the plains, in the hills or in the mountains. The cultivated species change according to location: on the plains the major

Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) today is not only a promising alternative and counterpoint to wild collection, enabling preservation of natural genetic variability and survival of rare, endemic, vulnerable and endangered species, but also represents a powerful economy branch providing the high class quality raw material for pharmaceutical, cosmetic and the food industry. Domestication and cultivation of most of medicinal plants, usually conceived as a minor crops, face with many challenges on small, medium and large scale production, relating both cultivation technologies and market and prices fluctuations. Cultivated MAP material is increasingly preferred by the herbal industry, because it is easier to predict plant yield, quality and drug composition, especially when compared with wild harvested raw materials. In case of cultivated MAP material, the possibility of plant misidentification and adulteration is excluded. The profitability of cultivation of medicinal plants compete with profit achievable for standard field crops for which already exist a specialized machinery and a standard procedure for application of fertilizers and agrochemicals to control weeds, pests and diseases. For successful large scale cultivation of MAP, the high quality raw material should be produced using low input cultivation methods to be competitive at the international market and with plants collected from the wild. The most common issues with which the producers of medicinal plants encountered are the market, abundance and accessibility of wild populations, agro-environmental conditions, labor availability and costs, investments in machinery, post-harvest processing, and profitability of production. Superior genotypes are very important for profitable production of the high quality medicinal plants’ row material. Out of all cultivated medicinal plant species, only a small percentage is clearly genetically defined and represented on the seed market in term of variety. Similarly to the other crops, traditional breeding methods, as well as biotechnological procedures and selection assisted by molecular markers are applied in development of new varieties and cultivars of MAP, aiming at improvement of their desirable characteristics. This refers to increased drug yield and the content of required secondary metabolites. Mapping of genes and specific DNA sequences involved in biosynthesis of particular metabolite classes seems to be a future challenge in MAP breeding programs. Most of actual research is focused on genetic variability among different taxa of medicinal plants using several types of DNA markers, including restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), amplified fragment length polymorphic DNA (AFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), cleavage amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS), simple sequence repeat (SSR), and sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) markers. Although the primary target for trait manipulation in medicinal plants is the content of active compounds, for development as crops, basic agronomic characters related to uniformity, stability, growth and development, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, must also be improved.KeywordsCultivation versus collectionDecision makingBreeding approaches

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have become a part of traditional system of medicines and have gained importance, more so in today’s world. According to the estimate of World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of the population of developing world are making use of traditional medicines. The medicinal plants have been used for widespread purposes since ancient times in countries particularly India, China, Greece, Persia etc. In India, according to a report of AICEP, Anthropological Survey of India, 1994, it is estimated that over 7,500 species of medicinal plants are used for therapeutic uses. The major floral species which are widely used as medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) include Ephedra gerardiana Wall., Rauvolfia serpentina, Swertia chirata, Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle, Rhododendron anthopogon D. Dun., Peganum harmala L. etc. The widespread use of these medicinal plants for both internal consumption and export purposes have led to their large-scale exploitation, resulting in loss of biological diversity (both at genetic and species level). Most of the medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentina, Gentiana kurro, Alpinia galanga, Saussurea lappa have become endangered and threatened. Overexploitation along with lack of initiatives from government bodies, absence of proper management systems and loss of traditional knowledge are some of the factors responsible for rapid biodiversity loss. Indigenous people and biodiversity complement each other and the former has played an important role in conservation of biodiversity since time immemorial. The rural communities over the period of time have gathered a pool of indigenous knowledge/know-how for cultivation of the medicinal plants and their propagation. In the meantime, the importance of local knowledge systems in conservation and preservation of the germplasm of medicinal plants have also attained global significance. In India, various programmes on medicinal plants and their conservation based on traditional knowledge are being carried out by the local people, Non Government Organizations (NGOs), Community Based Organizations (CBOs) at various grass root levels such as the districts and villages. Though an unorganized sector, the local people are playing their role in the propagation as well as conservation of the medicinal plants through the application of the concepts of herbal gardens and local “mandis” (markets). There is a need to strengthen these linkages and build upon the indigenous knowledge base of the local people through proper documentation and building of a strong database. This paper deliberates upon the importance (therapeutic, ecological and economic) of medicinal plants and threats to their biodiversity. The communication also describes the details of some of the local efforts, which are being carried out at local levels in India for conservation of medicinal plants through the use of indigenous knowledge of traditional medicines. The paper also highlights the need to integrate indigenous knowledge into national policies and strengthen the participation of the indigenous communities in order to harness maximum potential of medicinal plant biodiversity along with sustainable management of these resources.

Dooryard Medicinal Plants of St. Lucia Barbara E. Fredrich* Increasing recognition of the importance of medicinal plant species and their uses is being evidenced in recent literature.1 However , apart from giving listings and detailed descriptions of plant use for specific areas, few studies have attempted to combine medicinal plant usage and spatial patterns of medicinal plants in dooryard gardens.2 This article is a partial documentation of rural folk medicine, or bush medicine as it is more commonly known, in St. Lucia, a small volcanic island in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean. On this island medicinal plant usage reflects the rich culture-history charac- * Dr. Fredrich is Assistant Professor of Geography at San Diego State University , San Diego 92182. 1 See for example, J. Eldridge, "Bush Medicine in the Exumas and Long Island, Bahamas: A Field Study," Economic Botany, Vol. 29 (1975), pp. 307332 , and W. Wong, "Some Folk Medicinal Plants from Trinidad," Economic Botany, Vol. 30 (1976), pp. 103-143. 2 Physiognomic or floristic maps of sketches of gardens are presented in E. Anderson, "Reflections on Certain Honduran Gardens," Landscape, Vol. 4 (1954), pp. 21-23; C. Bennett, "The House of the Bayano Cuna Indians of Panama," Antropologica, No. 20 (1967), pp. 37-52; A. Covich and N. Nickerson , "Studies of Cultivated Plants in Choco Dwelling Clearings, Darien, Panama ," Economic Botany, Vol. 20 (1966), pp. 285-301; C. Kimber, "Dooryard Gardens of Martinique," Yearbook of the Association of Pacific Coast Geographers , Vol. 28 (1966), pp. 97-118; and C. Kimber, "Spatial Patterning in the Dooryard Gardens of Puerto Rico," The Geographical Review, Vol. 63 (1973), pp. 6-26. However, medicinal species are not distinguished from other garden flora, and consequently are not considered spatially in any of these reports. 65 66 ASSOCIATION OF PACIFIC COAST GEOGRAPHERS LOCATION OF DOORYARD GARDENS, IN ST. LUCIA ATLANTIC OCEAN TT A;· FOND D'ASSAU CASTR CARIBBEAN SEA SOUFRIERE LEGEND Dooryard Gardens 0 12 3 4 5 Miles 1 I ? I ? I ? I |l 0 2 4 6 8 Kilometers L'AMERIQUE ...T OENNERY Mt. Gimie VIEUX FORT UICOUD Figure 1. The majority of visited dooryard gardens are located in northern St. Lucia, where most of the population resides. YEARBOOK · VOLUME 40 · 197867 terized by Amerind influences, alternating British and French domination , African and East Indian imprints, and recent emergence as an independent state. The type and patterning of medicinal plants in dooryard gardens may indicate the degree of adherence to traditional folk practices in a society which has had long exposure to Western medicine. Information is derived from a field study conducted from June 1970 to June 1971.3 Interviewees were primarily female adults. The 160 dooryard gardens that were visited as part of a larger study furnished the majority of medicinal plant specimens (Figure 1 ).4 Additional specimens were obtained from provision grounds where a mixed-cropping agricultural system prevails, and from "bush" which includes the rain-forest, areas of secondary vegetation, and roadside vegetation. With the exception of about a dozen species, specimens from provision grounds and "bush" were duplicates of those collected in dooryard gardens. Medicinal plant species are next discussed as they relate to ( 1) the number of species occurrences in gardens, (2) spatial patterning in sample dooryard gardens, and (3) the use of plants for common ailments. Species Occurrences Some 121 medicinal species representing 55 botanical families were collected on St. Lucia. These medicinal species, accounting for approximately one-third of the total garden species gathered during the course of field work, are presented in Table 1 at the conclusion of this article. It was left to respondents to determine whether or not a given plant was a medicinal, but St. Lucians are not in complete accord as to which plants contain medicinal properties. Consequently, 3 The author wishes to thank the many St. Lucians who willingly donated plant specimens, and Professors C. D. Adams, of the University of the West Indies, Mona, and J. D. Sauer, of the University of California, Los Angeles, for their kind assistance in species identification. 4 Gardens studied and all species collected are considered in B. E. Fredrich , "Morphology of Dooryard Gardens: Patterns, Imprints, and Transformations in St. Lucia, West...

Indiscriminate harvest of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) from their natural habitats affects availability and endangers existence of these plants. Therefore, approaches for promoting cultivation must be sought for the maintenance of these plants and the improvement of livelihood in local communities. Understanding factors affecting cultivation of MAPs is of paramount importance, particularly in developing countries, but research on this issue is scarce. This study aimed at identifying and prioritizing driving and inhibiting factors affecting cultivation of MAPs in Rasht, Iran, using the Delphi method. Multiple-response techniques were used to analyze the content (effective factors), using properly designed questionnaires. Data were analyzed using conventional techniques such as means, variation ratios, Shannon entropy, and triangular fuzzy numbers. Crucial factors promoting the cultivation of MAPs in the region were: (1) the identification of important native medicinal species compatible with the ecological conditions of the province, (2) the establishment of facilities for processing MAPs, and (3) providing experimental spaces for the domestication of wild medicinal species. On the other hand, the most important factors inhibiting the cultivation of these plants in the region were: (1) the lack of information that would motivate cultivation of medicinal plants, (2) the lack of herbal medicine companies in the province area, and (3) the lack of coordination between research centers and environment agencies in the context of decision making. Values of Kendall’s W were found to be 0.203 for the driving factors and 0.219 for the inhibiting factors, implying agreement of the experts, so that an additional round of Delphi was not required. Findings shed light on factors that could help policy-makers at national and international level to promote the cultivation of MAPs, thus linking regular quantity of MAPs for the pharmaceutical industry and ensuring livelihood and socioeconomic development of the local communities as well as conservation of the natural resource base.

Conservation, sustainable utilization and cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have received much attention in the recent years. MAPs are important ecosystem service, and dependence on MAPs for sustaining livelihood in the developing regions is still high. Despite, the tradition of trade, priorities and practices for integrated development of MAPs sector in developing regions, including the entire Indian Himalayan Region are inadequate. Uttarakhand (India—Western Himalaya), is pioneer in categorizing potential MAPs, determining priorities and developing practices for integrated development of MAPs. On the basis of regional agro-climatic conditions, available MAPs resources and prospect, a total of 132 indigenous and exotic species of MAPs in the Uttarakhand are categorized as substantial. In addition, a total of 28 plans for integrated development of MAPs sector through four prioritized areas (6 plans for coordination, 5 for research, education and documentation, 3 for conservation and sustainable development and 14 for cultivation and marketing) are introduced in past 10–12 years. Recent facilitations in the sustainable harvesting, cultivation and marketing have enabled to achieve the considerable progress in production of planting materials, promotional cultivation and sustainable harvesting and marketing. MAPs produce from cultivation-associated sources, having an economic value of Rs. 93.90 lakhs to 294.60 lakhs (cf. to US $ 147,479.19–462,698.29.00) from 2007–08 to 2012–13, and produce obtained through sustainable harvesting with the value of Rs. 321.54 lakhs to 1,791.00 lakhs (cf. to US $ 505,010.21–2,812,941.73) from 2003–04 to 2012–13 was marketed from Uttarakhand. Even though, the facilitation-driven progress in MAPs sector is encouraging; however, considering some key aspects for ascertaining sustainability and competence in the MAPs sector are still required. An attempt is made to describe decadal progress in the MAPs sector in Uttarakhand with associated and expected prospect.

Linking resource supplies and price drivers: Lessons from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) price volatility and change, 2002–2017

This paper surveys the medicinal plants and their traditional use by local people in Ben En National Park, Vietnam. A total of 230 medicinal plant species (belonging to 200 genera and 84 families) is used by local people for treatment of 68 different diseases. These include species that are collected in the wild (65%) as well as species grown in home gardens. Leaves, stems and roots are most commonly used either fresh or dried or by decocting the dried parts in water. Women are mainly responsible for health care, they have better knowledge of medicinal plants than men, and also collect them more than men at almost every age level. The indigenous knowledge of traditional medicinal plants may be rapidly lost because 43% of the young generation do not know or do not want to learn about medicinal plants, and the remainder knows little about them. Moreover, nowadays local people tend to use western medicine. Eighteen medicinal plant species are commercialized and contribute on average 11% to the income of the households. The majority of medicinal species are used by less than half of the households and 68% of the medicinal plant species have use indices lower than 0.25. Only 6 of the medicinal species of Ben En are listed in the Red data list of Vietnam, but locally 18 medicinal species are endangered because of overharvesting. A comparison of traditional uses of medicinal plants in Ben En National Park with traditional uses elsewhere in South-East Asia and the Indo-Pacific region shows that the same species may be used for widely different treatments by different ethnic groups. The conservation, sustainable use and economic potential of medicinal plants is discussed. We argue that their use, cultivation in home gardens, and marketing should be encouraged as an affordable alternative to expensive western medicine.