Abstract
Venoms are complex mixtures of toxic compounds delivered by bite or sting. In humans, the consequences of envenomation range from self-limiting to lethal. Critical host defence against envenomation comprises innate and adaptive immune strategies targeted towards venom detection, neutralisation, detoxification, and symptom resolution. In some instances, venoms mediate immune dysregulation that contributes to symptom severity. This review details the involvement of immune cell subtypes and mediators, particularly of the dermis, in host resistance and venom-induced immunopathology. We further discuss established venom-associated immunopathology, including allergy and systemic inflammation, and investigate Irukandji syndrome as a potential systemic inflammatory response. Finally, this review characterises venom-derived compounds as a source of immune modulating drugs for treatment of disease.
Highlights
Venoms are complex mixtures of proteins, peptides, biogenic amines, and salts produced by a diverse range of animals for predation, protection, and competition [1,2,3,4]
Keratinocytes and resident immune cells detect damage induced by noxious substances, such as venomderived compounds, stimulating the release of alarmins, cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13), and other proinflammatory mediators required for antibody production [126, 127]
This study showed that adrenaline contributes to the positive feed-forward cytokine dysregulation seen in cytokine release syndrome (CRS) [206]
Summary
Venoms are complex mixtures of proteins, peptides, biogenic amines, and salts produced by a diverse range of animals for predation, protection, and competition [1,2,3,4]. This review discusses both the protective and pathological responses of barrier cells and the immune system towards venom compounds. MNCs and MFs secrete a wide range of cytokines and chemokines that modulate immune cell function and are potent mediators of neutrophil recruitment [47].
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