Identification of Polyphenols, Glycoalkaloids, and Saponins in Solanum scabrum Berries Using HPLC-UV/Vis-MS.

Solanum scabrum berries in sub-Saharan Africa are prolific but neglected as an agricultural resource. Recognition and application of such underutilized resources rely on systematic study of the relevant phytochemicals of commercial value. The quantities of a total of 54 phytochemicals in Solanum scabrum berries were assessed using HPLC-MS methods. Berries from eight different genetic sources were analyzed with two entries monitored across different maturation stages. There was a significant variation among mature berries in the accumulation of phenolic acids, 91.5-794mg·100 g-1 dry weight (DW); flavonols, 76.3-897mg·100 g-1 DW; anthocyanins, 178-4650mg·100 g-1 DW; glycoalkaloids, 1.76-1630mg·100 g-1 DW; and saponins, 82.2-606mg·100 g-1 DW. Fruit development from immature to post-frost harvest featured dynamic changes in phytochemical composition and, despite remarkable differences in the absolute magnitude of content, the trend of change was generally similar in different genetic sources. The genotype-dependent difference in toxic glycoalkaloids in mature berries may partially explain the consumption controversy as it reflects glycoalkaloid content. The analytical methods applied in this work should serve for quality control of glycoalkaloids thereby improving the safe utilization of this berry. In addition, the selection and breeding of new genotypes with low and safe levels of glycoalkaloids and saponins in the berry could be of value in sub-Saharan Africa to increase nutrition and generate new income opportunities for growers. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

This study aimed to evaluate and compare the effect of structure of phenolic acids on antihypertensive and antioxidant properties of caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid. The antihypertensive property was studied by evaluating interactions of caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid with some key enzymes (ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase [E‐NTPDase], 5ʹ‐ectonucleotidase, adenosine deaminase, angiotensin converting enzyme, acetylcholinesterase, and arginase) relevant to high blood pressure. Also, the protective effects of caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid against prooxidants‐induced oxidative damage in the rat's heart were determined. Results from this work confirm that caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid exhibited inhibitory effects on key enzymes linked with hypertension and prevented prooxidant‐induced oxidative damage in rat's heart. Nevertheless, esterification of caffeic acid with quinic acid might have been responsible for the stronger inhibitory effects exhibited by chlorogenic acid on some enzymes relevant to hypertension. We conclude that esterification of caffeic acid with quinic acid could influence the antihypertensive property of the resultant chlorogenic acid. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Caffeic acid and its ester; chlorogenic acid are the most common hydroxycinnamic acids present in fruits, spices, vegetables, wine, olive oil, coffee, and dietary supplements. Since caffeic and chlorogenic acid possess pharmacological properties, consuming foods and grains rich in these phenolic acids might provide therapeutic benefits. Thus, caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid stand as promising candidates for drug discovery, and further investigation in this area is required.

Leaves of sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L.) are promising healthy leafy vegetable. Juvenile red fading (JRF) leaves of sweetpotato, with anthocyanins in young leaves, are good candidates for developing functional vegetables. Here, metabolic profiling and possible antioxidants were analyzed for five leaf stages of the sweetpotato cultivar "Chuanshan Zi". The contents of anthocyanins, total phenolics, and flavonoids all declined during leaf maturation, corresponding to declining antioxidant activities. By widely targeted metabolomics, we characterized 449 metabolites belonging to 23 classes. A total of 193 secondary metabolites were identified, including 82 simple phenols, 85 flavonoids, 18 alkaloids, and eight terpenes. Analysis of the metabolic data indicates that the antioxidant capacity of sweetpotato leaves is the combined result of anthocyanins and many other colorless compounds. Increased levels of "chlorogenic acid methyl ester", a compromised form of chlorogenic acid, significantly correlated with the declined antioxidant abilities. Besides anthocyanins, some significant metabolites contributing to the high antioxidant property of the sweetpotato leaves were highlighted, including chlorogenic acids, isorhamnetin glycosides, trans-4-hydroxycinnamic acid methyl ester, 4-methoxycinnamic acid, esculetin, caffeate, and trigonelline. This study provides metabolic data for the utilization of sweetpotato leaves as food sources, and sheds light on the metabolomic change for JRF leaves of other plants.

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) prevents obesity and related diseases by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation with adenosine triphosphate. Previous studies have demonstrated that polyphenols can promote the thermogenesis of BAT in mice. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a common phenolic acid found in fruits and vegetables, as well as traditional Chinese medicine, which is responsible for a variety of physiological activities. However, it is still unclear whether CGA has positive effects on the thermogenesis of BAT. In this study, CGA enhances the thermogenesis and proton leak of brown adipocytes, however, no changes are evident regarding the differentiation of C3 H10 T1/2 into brown adipocytes. Surprisingly, CGA promotes the uptake of glucose by upregulating the glucose transporter 2 and phosphofructokinase. Moreover, CGA increases the number and the function of mitochondrial. Taken together, CGA stimulates thermogenesis of brown adipocytes by promoting the uptake of glucose and the function of mitochondria. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is widely found in fruits, vegetables, and traditional Chinese medicines, which has been considered to have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory function. However, whether it has the function of resisting obesity and promoting thermogenesis is still unclear. In this study, brown adipocyte was used to explore the function and mechanism of CGA on thermogenesis. It provides new ideas for the utilization of foods rich in CGA and traditional Chinese medicine.

Sunflower meal, a byproduct of sunflower oil pressing, is not commonly used in alkaline baking applications. This is because chlorogenic acid, the main phenolic antioxidant in sunflower seeds, reacts with protein, giving the baked product a green discoloration. Our group previously demonstrated that a chlorogenic acid esterase from Lactobacillus helveticus hydrolyzes chlorogenic acid in sunflower dough cookie formulations, resulting in cookies that were brown instead of green. This study presents a sensory analysis to determine the acceptability of enzymatically upcycled sunflower meal as an alternative protein source for those allergic to meals from legumes or tree nuts. We hypothesized that the mechanism of esterase-catalyzed chlorogenic acid breakdown does not influence the cookies' sensory properties other than color and that consumers would prefer treated, brown cookies over non-treated cookies. Cookies made from sunflower meal were presented under green lights to mask color and tested by 153 panelists. As expected, the sensory properties (flavor, smell, texture, and overall acceptability) of the treated and non-treated cookies were not statistically different. These results corroborate proximate analysis, which demonstrated that there was no difference between enzymatically treated and non-treated cookies other than color and chlorogenic acid content. After the cookie color was revealed, panelists strongly preferred the treated cookies with 58% indicating that they "probably" or "definitely" would purchase the brown cookies, whereas only 5.9% would buy green, non-treated cookies. These data suggest that esterase-catalyzed breakdown of chlorogenic acid represents an effective strategy to upcycle sunflower meal for baking applications. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Sunflower meal is currently used as animal fodder or discarded. A major factor preventing sunflower meal use is its high chlorogenic acid content, which causes a green discoloration of baked goods made from sunflower meals under alkaline conditions. This study presents a sensory analysis in which panelists evaluate cookies made with sunflower flour that was treated with an esterase that breaks down chlorogenic acid. The results show that enzymatic treatment prevents greening and that panelists strongly prefer esterase-treated, non-green cookies, thus demonstrating the feasibility of utilizing sunflower flour in baking applications.

Extraction and fractionation of phenolic acids and glycoalkaloids from potato peels using acidified water/ethanol-based solvents

The Asteraceae family has been of significant concern for ethnobotanical studies, thanks to its health-promoting properties linked to a plethora of bioactive compounds, among which phenolic compounds play a critical role. In this work, a workflow based on computational chemometrics was employed to assess the authenticity and biomarker search of five key Asteraceae species commonly employed in traditional medicine. The UHPLC-DAD-ESI/MS-MS phenolic profile of Asteraceae extracts was combined with the evaluation of several invitro biological properties. Caffeoylquinic acids (CQAs), chicoric acids, and flavonoid glycosides were reported as authenticity markers of Achillea millefolium, Taraxacum officinale, and Arnica montana, respectively. The integration of phenolic profile and invitro bioactivities provide insights for the identification of trans 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid (3,5-O-diCQA) and isorhamnetin glycosides as the major antioxidant agents in Asteraceae extracts, whereas several CQAs and caffeoyl-deoxy-octulopyranosonic acids have been reported as responsible for their cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory activities. These results shed light on the authentication and quality evaluation of Asteraceae extracts, along with the characterization of their functional properties, leading to their application in the design of novel plant-based functional foods.

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a polyphenol prevalent in daily food and plants. Food allergy (FA) can lead to metabolic disorders of the immune system. The objective of this study was to investigate CGA therapeutic effect on FA and regulatory mechanism through shrimp food allergy in mice models. Here, 24 female BALB/C mice were randomly allocated into the (I) Control group, (II) Food allergy group, (III) Chlorogenic acid low (50 mg/kg), and (IV) high group (200 mg/kg). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay revealed that CGA decreased levels of IgE and IgG induced by food allergy significantly. Real-time PCR demonstrated that high-dose chlorogenic acid significantly reduced Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) mRNA expression and increased Carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT-1) mRNA expression. Western blot indicated that CGA promoted a noticeable increase at the levels of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and ACC phosphorylation, resulting in a significant activation in AMPK and inhibition in ACC, and increased CPT-1 expression. Consequently, CGA improves FA by the regulation of the AMPK/ACC/CPT-1 signaling pathway in the spleen. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Chlorogenic acid is a water-soluble polyphenolic substance that is widely distributed in natural plants that show a variety of pharmacological effects. At present, CGA has been developed as a weigh-reducing tonic in western countries. As one of the most widely found and most easily obtained phenolic acids from food, the diverse physiological effects of CGA (such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, metabolic regulation, intestinal microbial regulation, etc.) imply its potential for application in functional foods, food additives, and clinical medicine. However, the basic molecular mechanisms of its effects have not been elucidated. In this study, CGA reduced allergy in a mouse model, likely by interacting with the AMPK/ACC/CPT-1 pathway.

Whole crop rice (WCR) is used as an important feed for livestock ruminants. In this study, “Yeongwoo” variety WCR (cultivated on the Korean peninsula) was harvested at three different maturity stages (booting, heading, and milk) and their phenolic acid and flavonoid profiles in the lactic acid bacteria (LAB)-inoculated and noninoculated silage, hay, and fresh freeze-dried WCR extract were quantified. The alterations in the phenolic and flavonoid contents of the selected WCR during maturation in different samples were analyzed by the High-Performance Liquid Chromatography- Diode Array Detector (HPLC–DAD) technique. The six phenolics (caffeic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, dihydroxy benzoic acid, and prophyl gallate) and six flavonoids (rutin hydroxide, luteolin, kaempferol, vitexin, myricetin, and quercetin) were noted to have slight differences between the LAB-inoculated and noninoculated silage samples; however, the phenolics and flavonoids were higher in hay WCR at the milk stage compared to the silage and fresh freeze-dried samples. The results indicate that WCR harvest times have different phenolic compounds in the WCR silage, hay, and fresh samples. The phenolic and flavonoid compounds were higher (p < 0.05) with the increase in maturity (Stage 1–3). The stage of WCR maturity was positively related (p < 0.05) to the amount of phenolic acid and flavonoid contents (µg/g) in hay, silage, and fresh freeze-dried extract. We observed the WCR had high amounts of phenolic acid and flavonoid concentrations at milk stage (Stage 3) hay (quercetin, kaemferol, luteolin, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, and coumaric acid were 1.28, 1.29, 0.54, 1.54, 1.92, and 1.81 µg/g, respectively) compared with the booting and heading stages (Stages 1 and 2), with acceptable accuracy on a pilot scale. Based on these results, it could be concluded that LAB (Lactobacillus plantarum)-inoculated whole crop rice silage (WCRS) did not affect the phenolics and flavonoids of secondary plant metabolites in fermented silage. However, phenolics and flavonoids were of higher rations in WCR at the milk stage. Furthermore, this phenolic acid and flavonoid effect needs to be confirmed using large-scale in vivo analysis.

The effect of chlorogenic acid (a natural phenolic acid ubiquitous in plant foods) on selected therapeutic properties of donepezil (DON) in a scopolamine (SCOP)-induced rat model of amnesia was the focus of this study. Adult albino (Wister strain) rats were allocated into five groups (n=11) consisting of control, SCOP, SCOP + chlorogenic acid (CGA), SCOP + DON, and SCOP + CGA + DON for 7 days. Post-treatment, the rat brain cerebral cortex homogenate was assayed for cholinesterase and monoamine oxidase activities. Also, the reactive oxygen species, total thiol and nitric oxide contents, alongside catalase, and superoxide dismutase activities were determined. Routine histology for neuronal and glial cells as well as synaptophysin immunoreactivity was also carried out on the cerebral cortex. Thereafter, multiple ligand simultaneous docking was carried out for DON and CGA at the active sites of AChE and BChE. The results revealed that the biochemical parameters, glial cells, and synaptophysin immunoreactivity were significantly impaired in the cerebral cortex of scopolamine-treated rats. However, impaired butyrylcholinesterase and monoamine oxidase activity, together with antioxidant, glial cells, and synaptophysin levels were significantly ameliorated in scopolamine-treated rats administered DON + CGA compared to donepezil alone. The docking of both DON and CGA at the active sites of AChE or BChE showed higher binding energy to both enzymes compared to individual interactions of either DON or CGA. Hence, this study has been able to show that CGA could improve some of the therapeutic effects of DON, which could broaden the therapeutic spectrum of this drug. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study showed that chlorogenic acid (a major phenolic acid found in plant foods such as coffee) modulated some of the therapeutic properties of donepezil (an anticholinesterase drug used in the treatment of mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease). The combinations elicited better anti-butyrylcholinesterase, antimonoamine oxidase, and antioxidant properties, thus presenting this food-drug interaction as potentially able to offer better therapeutic properties.

Metabolic profiling of tobacco leaves at different growth stages or different stalk positions by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

Carbon(C) is the only key to running in this worldly life and without carbon, nothing can be ensured, but the amount and form of C in different spheres of the earth make numerous changes. Changes in the carbon levels cause the lives of all living things. Soil carbon flux directly or indirectly affects the global climate and thus agriculture productivity. To ensuring the human rations, protection is intended for the rising populace worldwide, where the critical challenges in the agriculture sector are inevitable. Improved soil and nutrient supervisions and cultural practices are very imperative to tackling these troubles. Augmenting the productivity of various agro-ecosystems, soil productiveness, and carbon accretion via certain approaches become a must concern towards sustainable food production. “Paddy soils form the huge area of artificial swamplands on the earth, and serves as food basket for the world population also responsible for sequestering soil organic carbon potentially”. Rice accounts for around 9-10 % of the total cropland area globally, and their environmental conditions are responsible for storing organic carbon in soil, methane (CH4) production, and emit nitrous oxide (N2O) in meager amount. The present review signifies the present and future potential agricultural management practices, particularly soil and plant nutrition and their effects on soil organic carbon storage (SOCS) and carbon sequestration (CS) by paddies grown under submerged conditions compared to other crops. Increasing carbon inputs and reducing SOC losses in low land paddy soils need attention as its concern with GHGs that implies direct causes of global climate. As future direction, life-cycle assessments of certain practices in low land paddy soils helps in assessing the carbon footprints and sustaining the crop productivity consequently mitigating climate change. With this view, this review study was taken to the life of carbon in the terrestrial ecosystem and its accumulation in low land paddy soils moderated by cultural and nutrient management practices adapted for rice production in low lands.

Reports over the years have demonstrated toxic side effect-including reproductive toxicity- of tamoxifen (TAM), a drug of choice in the management of primary breast cancer. Chlorogenic acid (CGA), a dietary polyphenol, reportedly elicits beneficial pharmacological effects. However, the impact of CGA on TAM-associated reproductive toxicity is absent in the literature. We, therefore, experimented on CGA's effect and TAM-mediated reproductive toxicity in rats. Cohorts of rats were treated with TAM (50mg/kg) or co-treated with CGA (25 or 50mg/kg) for 14 consecutive days. The result showed that treatment of CGA significantly increases testosterone, LH, and FSH levels compared to the TAM group. However, prolactin level was markedly decreased after pretreatment of CGA in TAM-treated rats. CGA abated TAM-induced decreases acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, and antioxidant enzymes in the testis. CGA alleviated TAM-facilitated surges of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, myeloperoxidase, nitric oxide, interleukin-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in rats epididymis and testes. Additionally, CGA increased anti-inflammatory cytokine -interleukin-10-, suppressed caspase-3 activity, and reduced pathological lesions in the examined organs of rats co-treated with CGA and TAM. CGA phytoprotective effect improved reproductive function occasioned by TAM-mediated toxicities in rats, by abating oxido-inflammatory damages and downregulating apoptotic responses. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: CGA protects against the damaging oxido-inflammatory responses incumbent on TAM metabolism. As an antioxidant abundant in plant-derived foods, CGA reportedly protects against inflammatory damage, hypertension, and neurodegenerative diseases. We present evidence that CGA ameliorates TAM-induced reproductive dysfunction by suppressing oxidative and inflammation stress downregulate apoptosis and improve reproductive function biomarker in rats.

Methods on Identification and Screening of Rice Genotypes with High Nitrogen Efficiency

The effective components of mulberry leaf polyphenols (MLPs) should be absorbed and transported by the intestinal cells before regulating lipid metabolism. The Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cell and 3T3-L1 adipocytes were coupled to screen the effective components of MLPs that are being absorbed and transported by intestinal cells. The regulation and molecular mechanism by which the effective components affect adipogenesis were analyzed in this study. Among the 12 main components identified, five main compounds were well absorbed with Papp in the order of benzoic acid > chlorogenic acid > astragaloside > hyperoside > rutin. Chlorogenic acid and benzoic acid were mainly absorbed through passive diffusion, while rutin, astragaloside, and hyperoside were mainly by active transport, of which chlorogenic and rutin absorption were mediated by the efflux protein, P-glycoprotein (P-pg). Based on the transport volume of 2 mg/ml MLPs within 2 h, 25% of the maximum transported MLPs (TMLPs) was a safe concentration for 3 T3-L1 preadipocytes. Except for astragaloside, the other four components showed a significant inhibitory effect on lipid droplets, TG and TC, and chlorogenic acid and benzoic acid had the strongest effect. Additionally, we observed a synergistic effect as TMLPs were the most effective. We hypothesized that TMLPs, chlorogenic acid and benzoic acid suppressed adipogenesis and regulated lipid metabolism by inhibiting PPAR-γ, C/EBP-α, and FAS mRNA while promoting ADIPO and Leptin mRNA expression. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The absorption and adipogenesis inhibition effect of mulberry leaf phenolics were evaluated in this study. The results provided guideline for the development of functional foods in regulating lipid metabolism.