Honey-Derived Hydrochar Containing 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl Free Radical for Degradation of Aqueous Organic Pollutants

Abstract

The increasing demand for greener technologies in environmental remediation makes carbon materials from biomass and its derivatives some of the most attractive resources for a sustainable future. However, integrating these materials with stable free radicals remains challenging. This study presents a straightforward one-pot hydrothermal route using raw honey as the carbon source and 4-amino 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (4-amino-TEMPO) as the free radical. The addition of TEMPO derivative initiates Maillard reactions between its amino group and the carbonyl groups of the carbohydrates in honey, resulting in the formation of a functionalized hydrochar with a spherical morphology (~ 8 μm). The presence of free radicals within the carbonaceous matrix was confirmed by electron spin resonance spectroscopy, supported by infrared spectroscopy, elemental analysis, thermal analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The free radical content was estimated at 0.4 mmol∙g-1. The material effectively removed methylene blue, fluorescein, and doxorubicin from water in the presence of green oxidants like hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypochlorite. After 24 h, removal efficiencies reached 92% for doxorubicin, 73% for methylene blue, and 23% for fluorescein. Moreover, the hydrochar demonstrated good regeneration capability, maintaining its dye removal efficiency over several cycles.