Guns better than education: political economy of defence, radical education policies, textbooks, and teachers’ outlook in Pakistan

Abstract

ABSTRACT The proliferation of religious radicalism within Pakistani education has sparked increasing concern, with significant implications both locally and globally. Current scholarship has primarily focused on education policies and textbooks, often overlooking the complex entanglement between the political economy of defence, the influence of military and economic elites, and the particularisation of radical national and religious narratives. This article uses qualitative methods and purposive sampling to explore how these intertwined forces have radicalised education policies and school textbooks. The research reveals a deep historical nexus between the military apparatus, religious groups, and the state’s educational agenda, fuelling radical ideologies among public schools and madrassah (religious school) teachers. The article elucidates how these power structures have shaped educational discourse in Pakistan by examining this entanglement through the lens of Foucauldian governmentality. The findings underscore the critical societal implications of understanding these dynamics, particularly given teachers’ significant role in shaping students’ worldviews. This study offers valuable insights for international policy analysts, educators, and scholars concerned with the intersection of defence, politics, and education.