Abstract
Significant gender-based health inequalities have been observed across Europe, with women reporting worse health than men. Still, there has been little examination of how the gender–health gap has changed over time, and how it has been shaped by societal gender equality. We used data from the Statistics on Income and Living Conditions Eurostat database (EU-SILC), involving 2,931,081 participants aged 25–64, for 27 European countries. Logistic regressions were performed to model the association between self-reported bad health and gender, in general and over time. Analyses were stratified by employment, education, and clusters of countries according to levels of Gender Equality Index (GEI). Adjusting for age, year, and country, bad health was 17% more likely among women, but this disadvantage ceased after accounting for education and employment. Gender–health inequalities were larger among countries with higher GEI scores and among low-educated groups. The gender–health gap did not reduce significantly between 2004 and 2016, in general and within subgroups. Although societies are becoming more equal, persistent inequalities in employment and income still lead to sustained health differences between men and women.
Highlights
Significant gender-based health inequalities have been observed across Europe, with women reporting worse health than men
We provide the first analysis of the evolution of gender-based inequalities in self-reported health for 27 European countries from 2004–2016 and examine any association with changes in societal gender equality
This study examined the evolution of gender inequalities in self-reported health in Europe between 2004 and 2016, in general and by socioeconomic status, and how levels of societal gender equality might have shaped any changes
Summary
Significant gender-based health inequalities have been observed across Europe, with women reporting worse health than men. Analyses were stratified by employment, education, and clusters of countries according to levels of Gender Equality Index (GEI). Adjusting for age, year, and country, bad health was 17% more likely among women, but this disadvantage ceased after accounting for education and employment. Societies are becoming more equal, persistent inequalities in employment and income still lead to sustained health differences between men and women. Several studies have focused on gender-based inequalities in health at the country level, as gender gaps vary cross-nationally, likely as a result of country-specific conditions.[8] Still, little is known about how gender differences in Europe have evolved in recent years and which country-specific factors have been driving these differences. These persistent inequalities may harm women’s health, through psychosocial mechanisms, by disappointing their expectations of an equal society.[16]
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