Abstract
Our interest in inflammation and its treatment stems from ancient times. Hippocrates used willow bark to treat inflammation, and many centuries later, salicylic acid and its derivative aspirin’s ability to inhibit cyclooxygenase enzymes was discovered. Glucocorticoids (GC) ushered in a new era of treatment for both chronic and acute inflammatory disease, but their potentially dangerous side effects led the pharmaceutical industry to seek other, safer, synthetic GC drugs. The discovery of the GC-inducible endogenous anti-inflammatory protein annexin A1 (AnxA1) and other endogenous proresolving mediators has opened a new era of anti-inflammatory therapy. This review aims to recapitulate the last four decades of research on NSAIDs, GCs, and AnxA1 and their anti-inflammatory effects.
Highlights
Inflammation and PainHistorically, descriptions of inflammation date back to the ancient Egyptian andGreek cultures, these early perceptions were largely based upon intuition rather than organised scientific investigation
Descriptions of inflammation date back to the ancient Egyptian and. These early perceptions were largely based upon intuition rather than organised scientific investigation
It is intriguing to recall that Hippocrates, a Greek physician who lived in 3500 B.C., had already described the beneficial actions of extracts of willow bark and leaves in fever and inflammation [27,28]
Summary
Descriptions of inflammation date back to the ancient Egyptian and. Greek cultures, these early perceptions were largely based upon intuition rather than organised scientific investigation. 1871, who identified a cellular component of the inflammatory response, paving the way for cellular pathology [3] These early unmethodical observations provided the framework for subsequent critical investigation by scientists, leading to conceptual shifts in the mechanistic understanding of the context and role of inflammation. The inflammatory response is terminated when noxious stimuli are removed; thereafter, a damaged tissue undergoes repair and dead cells or debris are cleared, and the resolution of inflammation is initiated by the release of ‘immunoresolvent’ molecules, such as the protein annexin A1 (AnxA1), and lipidic resolvins, protectins, lipoxins, and maresins [12]. Management of Pain’, Bonica distinguished normal from abnormal pain, which, if it persists, becomes pathological and modifies the biological signalling pathway This can have a negative impact on the quality of life, requiring patients to heavily rely upon therapeutic pain management [17]. Common causative factors of chronic pain are old age, trauma, injuries, acquired immune deficiency syndrome, autoimmune disease, and cancer [20]
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