Food Production: The Challenge for Pesticides

Pesticides in agriculture

Global food production, supply chains, and food security are increasingly threatened by the burgeoning human population and the dwindling availability of arable land, exacerbating their vulnerability to both natural disasters and anthropogenic disturbances. Crop production hinges on a myriad of species interactions, encompassing both beneficial and detrimental organisms. The large-scale identification of these species within food production systems presents a formidable challenge, yet precise identification is paramount for accurately cataloging biodiversity and monitoring ecological changes. Enhancing our capabilities in detecting emergent pests and diseases, assessing soil and pollinator diversity, and collecting data to inform innovative management strategies such as targeted pesticide and fertilizer applications are critical components of this endeavor. Environmental DNA (eDNA) has emerged as a potent tool for the rapid and precise identification of individual organisms and species assemblages across various matrices, including air and soil. This paper explores the application of eDNA for the surveillance of agricultural environments and pest management. The scope of this review encompasses the utilization of eDNA technology in agricultural systems, focusing on its application in pest control and biodiversity monitoring. Despite the promising capabilities of eDNA, its implementation in pest management within agricultural systems remains underutilized, particularly in regions where food security is most at risk. A significant gap exists in the application of eDNA-based monitoring studies in food production systems globally, with a marked deficiency in developing nations. The objectives of this review are to evaluate the current use of eDNA in pest control and agricultural biodiversity monitoring, identify existing limitations and propose potential solutions to enhance eDNA applications, and highlight the need for increased adoption of eDNA technologies in underrepresented regions to improve global food security. Our comprehensive analysis underscores the efficacy of eDNA-based monitoring in pest control, delivering precise taxonomic identifications. Notably, 60% of eDNA research is concentrated on soil and plant substrates, predominantly focusing on bacterial and insect identification, with European studies accounting for a significant proportion (42%). There is a notable paucity of eDNA-based monitoring studies in numerous global food production systems, particularly within developing nations where food security is most precarious.

Global food production, supply chains, and food security are increasingly threatened by the burgeoning human population and the dwindling availability of arable land, exacerbating their vulnerability to both natural disasters and anthropogenic disturbances. Crop production hinges on a myriad of species interactions, encompassing both beneficial and detrimental organisms. The large-scale identification of these species within food production systems presents a formidable challenge, yet precise identification is paramount for accurately cataloging biodiversity and monitoring ecological changes. Enhancing our capabilities in detecting emergent pests and diseases, assessing soil and pollinator diversity, and collecting data to inform innovative management strategies such as targeted pesticide and fertilizer applications are critical components of this endeavor. Environmental DNA (eDNA) has emerged as a potent tool for the rapid and precise identification of individual organisms and species assemblages across various matrices, including air and soil. This paper explores the application of eDNA for the surveillance of agricultural environments and pest management. The scope of this review encompasses the utilization of eDNA technology in agricultural systems, focusing on its application in pest control and biodiversity monitoring. Despite the promising capabilities of eDNA, its implementation in pest management within agricultural systems remains underutilized, particularly in regions where food security is most at risk. A significant gap exists in the application of eDNA-based monitoring studies in food production systems globally, with a marked deficiency in developing nations. The objectives of this review are to evaluate the current use of eDNA in pest control and agricultural biodiversity monitoring, identify existing limitations and propose potential solutions to enhance eDNA applications, and highlight the need for increased adoption of eDNA technologies in underrepresented regions to improve global food security. Our comprehensive analysis underscores the efficacy of eDNA-based monitoring in pest control, delivering precise taxonomic identifications. Notably, 60% of eDNA research is concentrated on soil and plant substrates, predominantly focusing on bacterial and insect identification, with European studies accounting for a significant proportion (42%). There is a notable paucity of eDNA-based monitoring studies in numerous global food production systems, particularly within developing nations where food security is most precarious.

The exploration of medicinal plants in Gilgit-Baltistan for pest and insect control emerges as a promising strategy for natural pest management. The research was focused on three specific plant species-Swertia cordata, Gentiana tianschanica, and Pleurospermum candollei-highlighting their efficacy in pest control and the conservation of biodiversity in the region. These plants boast a rich array of secondary metabolites, including alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenoids, tannins, saponins, carbohydrates, and proteins, contributing to their pest-controlling attributes. The phytochemical investigation involved the collection of fresh plants from diverse locations, followed by air-drying and extracting plant samples for analysis. Qualitative tests on the crude extracts aimed to discern the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, steroids, and carbohydrates. The results of the preliminary phytochemical analysis affirmed the presence of various secondary metabolites in all three plant species. Additionally, the research delved into the antioxidant potential of these plants, employing DPPH free radical scavenging assays. The extracts from different solvents of each plant species exhibited noteworthy antioxidant activity, suggesting their role as natural antioxidants. The research explores the multifaceted bioactive properties of the identified secondary metabolites, highlighting their significance in fortifying plant defense mechanisms. Alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenoids, tannins, saponins, amino acids, and carbohydrates collectively contribute to the overall health benefits of these plants, potentially aiding in insect control and disease prevention. The study concluded by underscoring the imperative for further research to comprehensively grasp the specific uses, concentrations, and properties of these compounds for effective pest and disease control. In essence, the findings underscore the importance of harnessing medicinal plants for pest management, considering their reduced environmental impact in contrast to synthetic pesticides. The research provides valuable insights into the potential of natural compounds derived from medicinal plants, offering a sustainable approach to agricultural practices and the preservation of ecosystems.

The concept, theory, and techniques of integrated control have been thoroughly discussed by several authors (42, 97, 98, 105, 116, 122, 126), and for the purposes of this paper the definition of integrated control presented by Smith & van den Bosch (116) will be used. The following discussion will attempt to relate this concept and these techniques to recent research on tree fruit pest management. From the advent of DDT for pest control in the mid 1940s until the 1960&, research on control of pests on tree fruits was strongly oriented toward the use of insecticides. Barnes' review of this subject in 1959 (8) points out the predominance of chemical control studies but does mention some of the early work on integration of chemical and biological control. More recently the control of pome fruit pests has been reviewed (76), and it is obvious that a considerable change in emphasis and philosophy toward research on control of fruit pests occurred in the decade between 1960 and 1970. Studies on biology, population dynamics, biological control, and integrated control received much greater emphasis. This change was, no doubt, related to the changing public attitude toward pesticides, but other factors have also played a part. Control of tree fruit pests by chemicals alone has been fraught with problems of pest resistance, resurgence, and elevation of minor pests to major pest status. Costs of pest control have mounted and in some cases ever-increasing amounts of pesticides were required to keep the large number of pest species under control or to substitute in controlling species resistant to pesticides. For these reasons the best pesticides available could be considered but temporary measures to be supplanted at a later date by another pesticide. To many research workers, the answer was a more broadly based approach to pest control. One of the outstanding examples of early integrated control programs occurred on apples in Nova Scotia (94). Subsequent to the research in Nova Scotia in the 1940s several refinements and changes have been made in the program and these have been thoroughly reviewed (72). The program developed in Nova Scotia and subsequent refinements are of major interest for two reasons. First, the early re­ search occurred at a time when most other research efforts were shifting to the use

Findings from this recent study on university libraries in Nigeria revealed that there was a prevalence of pest infestation, including rodents, cockroaches and termites. Prominent among the causes of infestation were food and drink being brought into the libraries, along with the occasional transport of infested materials. Good housekeeping, periodic maintenance of the library environment and fumigation have been adopted as pest treatment and control measures by the libraries, although the absence of dedicated library pest control units means that they depend on any more university-wide pest control programme. This means there are challenges for pest control that include a lack of specialist knowledge compounded by a lack of training for library personnel and inadequate knowledge of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), all of which this article advocates to ensure the effective management and control of pests in the university libraries.

Households are mini‐ecosystems that provide a variety of conditions in which a variety of insect species can develop. Whether these insects are considered pests, largely depends on the perception, attitudes, and knowledge of the human inhabitants of the house. If considered unacceptable, residents can attempt to manage the insects themselves, or hire a professional. A pest management professional can provide a quick‐fix solution, often relying on the sole use of insecticides, or a sustainable solution through integrated pest management (IPM). In this review, it is discussed how the public's perception, attitudes, and knowledge affect the implementation of IPM in the household through the following steps: inspection, identification, establishment of a threshold level, pest control, and evaluation of effectiveness. Furthermore, recent and novel developments within the fields of inspection, identification, and pest control that allow to address pest infestations more effectively are described and their implementation in the household environment is discussed. In general, pest management in the household environment is reactive instead of pro‐active. The general public lacks the knowledge of the pest insects’ biology to identify the species, perform a proper inspection and identify causes of pest presence, as well as the knowledge of the available tools for monitoring and pest control. The percentage of individuals that seek professional aid in identification and pest control is relatively low. Moreover, the perception of and attitudes towards household insects generally result in low threshold levels. Current developments of methods for monitoring, identification, and control of insect pests in the household environment are promising, such as DNA barcoding, matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization time‐of‐flight and RNA interference. Efforts should be strengthened to alter the perception and attitude, and increase the knowledge of the non‐professional stakeholders, so that correct pest management decisions can be taken.

Developing GM insects for sustainable pest control in agriculture and human health

Simple SummaryCurrently, there is great global research interest in the use of novel methods of protection against agricultural, storage, and urban pests, particularly in the use of botanical substances and nontoxic materials. To ensure efficacy and safety, botanical and synthetic insecticides must be properly formulated and delivered in a species-specific way to their pest targets. The wide diversity of pests and environments—globally occurring at farms and food industry facilities—has inevitably resulted in a massive proliferation of application formulations and approaches. Although there are excellent summaries on particular aspects of the usage of synthetic and botanical pesticides, a general overview of application formulations on stored-product and food-associated pests is not currently available. This review provides an inventory of current and historical pesticide formulations. Its structure follows the traditional insecticide categorization based on four physical formulation types: gas, liquid, gel/foam, and solid. The review documents renewed research interest in optimizing traditional methods, such as insecticide baits, aerosols, sprays, fumigants, and inert gases, as well as the feasibility of integrating these methods with natural insecticides and physical measures (e.g., low temperatures) as combined application approaches. Several emerging technologies of pesticide formulations have been identified; they include electrostatic dusts or sprays, nanoparticles, hydrogels, inert baits with synthetic attractants, biodegradable cyanogenic protective coatings of grain, and RNA-based gene silencing compounds encapsulated in baits. Traditional and new formulations of natural compounds, including inert dust (diatomaceous earth) and botanicals (essential oils), have been considered as non-synthetic chemical control solutions for organic food production in developed countries and as affordable home-made insecticides in developing countries. The authors hope that the general coverage and extensive photographic documentation will make this review useful not only for scientists but also for students and practitioners.The selective application of insecticides is one of the cornerstones of integrated pest management (IPM) and management strategies for pest resistance to insecticides. The present work provides a comprehensive overview of the traditional and new methods for the application of gas, liquid, gel, and solid physical insecticide formulations to control stored-product and food industry urban pests from the taxa Acarina, Blattodea, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Psocoptera, and Zygentoma. Various definitions and concepts historically and currently used for various pesticide application formulations and methods are also described. This review demonstrates that new technological advances have sparked renewed research interest in the optimization of conventional methods such as insecticide aerosols, sprays, fumigants, and inert gases. Insect growth regulators/disruptors (IGRs/IGDs) are increasingly employed in baits, aerosols, residual treatments, and as spray-residual protectants for long-term stored-grain protection. Insecticide-impregnated hypoxic multilayer bags have been proven to be one of the most promising low-cost and safe methods for hermetic grain storage in developing countries. Insecticide-impregnated netting and food baits were originally developed for the control of urban/medical pests and have been recognized as an innovative technology for the protection of stored commodities. New biodegradable acaricide gel coatings and nets have been suggested for the protection of ham meat. Tablets and satchels represent a new approach for the application of botanicals. Many emerging technologies can be found in the form of impregnated protective packaging (insect growth regulators/disruptors (IGRs/IGDs), natural repellents), pheromone-based attracticides, electrostatic dust or sprays, nanoparticles, edible artificial sweeteners, hydrogels, inert baits with synthetic attractants, biodegradable encapsulations of active ingredients, and cyanogenic protective grain coatings. Smart pest control technologies based on RNA-based gene silencing compounds incorporated into food baits stand at the forefront of current strategic research. Inert gases and dust (diatomaceous earth) are positive examples of alternatives to synthetic pesticide products, for which methods of application and their integration with other methods have been proposed and implemented in practice. Although many promising laboratory studies have been conducted on the biological activity of natural botanical insecticides, published studies demonstrating their effective industrial field usage in grain stores and food production facilities are scarce. This review shows that the current problems associated with the application of some natural botanical insecticides (e.g., sorption, stability, field efficacy, and smell) to some extent echo problems that were frequently encountered and addressed almost 100 years ago during the transition from ancient to modern classical chemical pest control methods.

One of the key challenges in the management of pest control in citrus production is ensuring the infestation samples collected in the field are processed in an efficient, effective manner to produce representative digital models that will support the decision-making process associated with planning and monitoring the application of pest control measures. This paper describes a research project that focuses on applying mining and geological tools for pest control in agriculture. Such tools have been successfully used in a pilot-project application for pest control planning and management of different citrus varieties. The pilot-project has been carried out in partnership with a major citrus producer in Brazil. The results indicated a significant improvement in the pest-control decision-making processes, with a significant reduction in the total areas for pest control application, including more than 68% reduction for the P. oleivora pest and over 92% reduction for the P. latus pest. The evaluation of the pilot-project results indicates that the citrus industry would benefit considerably in terms of reducing both operational costs and the impact of the pest control processes on the environment.

Modern intensive agricultural practices characteristic of Western Europe and North America, such as high usage of agro-chemicals, are cited as key drivers of biodiversity declines. Declines in biodiversity are likely to impact on a number of natural processes termed ‘ecosystem services’, which include pollination and pest control that play an important role in agricultural production. Because of the negative effects of intensive agricultural practices, there has been a search for alternative systems of production. One approach is ecological intensification, where ecosystem services are maximised in agriculture as a way to offset anthropogenic inputs that can damage the wider environment. Key to the success of ecological intensification is gaining a mechanistic understanding of how biodiversity supports the functioning of ecosystem services, so management can be targeted to maximise service delivery. In order to ensure that food production is sustainable in the face of constantly changing environments it is also important to understand how biodiversity responds to stressors, such as insecticide use. This thesis focuses on using invertebrate species morphological and behavioural characteristics—referred to collectively as traits—to gain a mechanistic understanding of how different components of biodiversity support the functioning and resilience of pollination and pest control ecosystem services. Results highlight that trait approaches provide higher accuracy in predicting the functioning and resilience of natural pest control and pollination, than measures such as species richness. I also highlight that common environmental stressors such as insecticides and extreme heat have the potential to limit pest control and pollination ecosystem services, respectively. My results broadly demonstrate that utilising invertebrate species behavioural and morphological traits are beneficial in understanding the mechanisms driving pollination and pest control ecosystem services.

Pests not only attack field crops during the growing season, but also damage grains and other food products stored in granaries. Modified or controlled atmospheres (MAs or CAs) with higher or lower concentrations of atmospheric gases, mainly oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), and nitric oxide (NO), provide a cost-effective method to kill target pests and protect stored products. In this review, the most recent discoveries in the field of MAs are discussed, with a focus on pest control as well as current MA technologies. Although MAs have been used for more than 30 years in pest control and play a role in storage pest management, the specific mechanisms by which insects are affected by and adapt to low O2 (hypoxia) and high carbon CO2 (hypercapnia) are not completely understood. Insect tolerance to hypoxia/anoxia and hypercapnia involves a decrease in aerobic metabolism, including decreased NADPH enzyme activity, and subsequently, decreases in glutathione production and catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione-S-transferase, and glutathione peroxidase activities, as well as increases in carboxyl esterase and phosphatase activities. In addition, hypoxia induces energy and nutrient production, and in adapted insects, glycolysis and pyruvate carboxylase fluxes are downregulated, accompanied with O2 consumption and acetate production. Consequently, genes encoding various signal transduction pathway components, including epidermal growth factor, insulin, Notch, and Toll/Imd signaling, are downregulated. We review the changes in insect energy and nutrient sources, metabolic enzymes, and molecular pathways in response to modified O2, CO2, NO, and O3 concentrations, as well as the role of MAs in pest control. This knowledge will be useful for applying MAs in combination with temperature control for pest control in stored food products.

The present study aims to analyze the impact of Precision Agriculture (PA) on food production in Brazil. We applied the multicriteria group decision using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) to weigh several selected criteria. The group consensus was very high (91.9%). The most critical criteria in level 1was the machinery input (48.9%), followed by software (44.4%) and human resources (6.7%). In level 2, within the machinery criterion, the sub-criteria soil was the most critical (31.9%), followed by pest control (28.5%). In level 2, within the software criterion, the sub-criteria input management was the most critical one (48.4%), followed by product management (42.3%). The four most significant global priorities are the sub-criteria soil (31.9%), Input management (21.5%), Product management (18.8%), and Pest control (13.9%). Results indicated that the use of PA in grain crops has a high impact on food production (71.1%).KeywordsMulticriteria analysisAgriculture 4.0Grain production

Research funds for addressing practical plant pest or disease problems are justified by the size of the threat and the financial burden it imposes. When new technology is developed for pest or disease control, regulatory costs to pay for risk assessments make sense when projected income from a new product can be charged to expected income from a future market. When a pest or disease problem affects a minor crop, the research to address regulatory issues does not have such a clear-cut funding origin. Ironically, a very selective biopesticide designed to address a local pest or disease problem is the ideal form of sustainable pest management, but has the smallest market of any pest control strategy and therefore the smallest amount of financial support. In this sphere of modest financial resources, regulatory needs can force research away from solving the problem at hand to address assessment issues that add considerable cost. When genetic modification is a part of the proposed new strategy, an added burden is placed on the developers. This burden can defy logic and can also come largely from peers, not the public.

Coordination in the US Federal Government on Pests, Pesticides, and Pest Management