Explaining the Formation of Zongfan Relations: Structure of Power, Domestic Influences and Ancient Sino-Korea Relations

Abstract

The ancient regional order in Asia is believed to have existed on the basis of a Sino-centric tributary system (朝贡体系). This long-lasting inter-state system was considered hierarchical and built on the Chinese cultural superiority and egocentricity. Other scholars believe the tributary system came to existence because of the cultural or trade relations between China and neighboring states. I challenge the above traditional wisdom about the Chinese tributary system. I believe the existing literature has failed to provide a persuasive explanation of how the tributary system emerged. I do not think cultural superiority and economic relations alone can adequately explain the formation of the Chinese tributary system in ancient international relations in Asia. In this study, I first distinguish the zongfan relations (宗藩关系) from the tributary system (朝贡体系). While the tributary system emphasizes on rituals and moral authority of the Chinese emperor over other small states, the zongfan relations emphasize on China’s suzerainty over other small states. I argue that culture and economic relations alone cannot explain why small neighboring voluntarily came to zongfan relations with China. There were strong cultural and civilizational ties between the Han Chinese and neighboring small states and ethnical minorities. But the Chinese cultural influence, moral authority and economic relations were not the only reason for small neighboring state to accept the Chinese suzerainty, and there were also other reasons such as their calculus of power relations and domestic influences when it came to considerations of their relations with China. In the Chinese history, the Chinese Han regime did not always rule the whole China and there were constant changes of political regimes in the country. How did other neighboring states respond to these regime changes? I use the case of China-Korean relations from the Tang to the Qing dynasties to illustrate the formation of zongfan relations between China and the Korean peninsula.This study uses the theory of neoclassical realism to explain the recurrent patterns of Korea’s zongfan relations with successive dynasties of China. I argue that system-level variables, i.e., the distribution of material capabilities and the balance of military forces of great powers, played an important role in shaping both Chinese and Korean foreign policies. At the unit level, Korea would not automatically become a vassal state of China when there were regime changes in China. It would have to make power calculus in its relations with the old power and rising power in the Chinese regime changes. In the power rivalry over who would rule China, the rising power or the new power that established its rule in China tended to indispensably adopt a coercive policy to destroy the existing cultural and political ties with Korea and force Korea into a new zongfan relationship with itself. The balance of power between the old and new powers would determine what policy the new power would adopt in dealing with Korea. If the new power is weaker than or equal to the old power, the new power would adopt a highly coercive policy to make Korea yield to it. When the new power reduced the old power and became the hegemon, it would then adjust its policy towards Korea. When the new power’s policy became coercive, Korea had to make survival its first concern and thus chose to kowtow to the emperor of the new power. However, Korea would not completely align itself with the new power but adopt a hedging strategy between two sides until it believed that the new power was powerful enough to reduce or even annihilate the old power. After the new hegemon emerged, Korea would try to improve its position within the system and maintain its domestic stability; the establishment of zongfan relations with the new power would be conducive to the realization of these goals. Thus Korea established the zongfan relations with the new power.