Examining two form-focused instruction combinations and their relationship with language-analytic ability in young learners: A study on the English possessive determiners his/her

In an attempt to add to the current body of research on written corrective feedback (CF), the current study reports on a nine-week intervention, which initially focused on the effect of direct written CF on learners’ use of English articles in their writing and then examined the effect of adding metalinguistic explanation to this CF type; and finally, the effect of learners’ Language Analytic Ability as an individual difference factor is investigated on language development through CF. To do so, this study used a pretest-treatment-posttest- delayed posttest research design and involved 57 intermediate female Iranian EFL learners aged 15-18 in three intact language classes, randomly assigned to the following groups: direct-only CF, direct CF with metalinguistic explanation, and control group. Initially, the findings demonstrated positive effects for direct written CF provided to learners’ writing, though the short-term benefit was more evident and statistically significant. The results also revealed a positive gain pattern through time for learners that received metalinguistic explanation, which supports the provision of such information along with written CF in language classrooms. Finally, learners’ language analytic ability was seen to be predictive of short-term and long-term learner gains when received metalinguistic explanation. The findings suggest that metalinguistic explanation provided as part of the feedback to language learners’ writing is conducive to a higher level of cognitive engagement and leads to better learning outcomes.

Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, KoreaAbstractThis study investigated the antioxidative effect of mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L.) extracts in hairless mouse skin from oxidative stress induced by UV-irradiation. After topical application on hairless mouse back with basic skin lotion group (control), ascorbic acid group (AA-0.5%, AA-1.0%, AA-2.0%, and AA-5.0%), and mugwort extract group (ME-0.5%, ME-1.0%, ME-2.0%, and ME-5.0%), the animals were irradiated to increasing doses of UVB (60 mJ～100 mJ) for 4 weeks. Hydrogen peroxide of hairless mouse skin homogenate significantly decreased in 2% (p<0.05) and 5% (p<0.05) of ME and AA groups. Hydroxyl radicals were decreased significantly in both of 2% and 5% ME groups as compared to AA groups (p<0.05). Oxidative stress levels deduced by oxidized protein contents were greatly decreased (14.6～18.5%) in all ME treatment groups, while only at 2% of AA treatment group. Lipid peroxide contents were greatly inhibited in all ME and AA treatment groups (p<0.01). Application of ME significantly increased catalase activity, over 25% in all mugwort and AA groups. Glutathione peroxidase activities were increased up to 20.5%～32.8% in 2.0% and 5% ME groups, whereas it increased in all AA groups. These results suggested that mugwort extract was more effective than that of ascorbic acid in protecting hairless mouse skin from photo-irradiation, and can be used as an potential anti-aging cosmetic ingredients.Key words: mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L.) extract, ascorbic acid, UVB, antioxidative effect, skin

At the Crossroad Between Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) and Language-Analytic Ability: A Study on Metalinguistic Explanations and the Acquisition of Explicit Knowledge of the L3 English Possessive Determiners His/Her

Languaging, learners’ reflections/comments on language use, has been shown to facilitate second language (L2) learning, presumably because it creates opportunities for noticing L2 constructions. If so, it would appear that the extent to which learners can make use of these opportunities might be influenced by their aptitude, as those with greater aptitude may be more prone to learning through noticing. Little research, however, has been conducted to explore this possibility. This study investigated whether learners with varying degrees of language analytic ability differentially benefit from engaging in written languaging when it is integrated into task-based work. The study employed a pretest-posttest-delayed posttest design, with 64 participants assigned to two groups. As part of dictogloss tasks, one group engaged in written languaging when comparing their reconstructed text with the original. The other group received the same treatment but did not have the opportunity to carry out written languaging during the dictogloss procedure. We measured language analytic ability with Part 4 of the MLAT, Part 2 of the LABJ, and the LLAMA_F test. A grammar production test and a grammar recognition test were included to assess development in the knowledge of the target construction, the if-clause of the present counterfactual conditional. Spearman correlations revealed that language analytic ability had stronger relationship to participants’ learning when they did not engage in written languaging than when they did during the dictogloss task. We interpreted this finding as suggesting that written languaging can help mitigate the influence of language analytic ability on L2 learning.

This study investigated the interactions between two types of feedback (implicit vs. explicit) and two aptitude components (language analytic ability and working memory) in second language Chinese learning. Seventy‐eight L2 Chinese learners from two large U.S. universities were assigned to three dyadic NS–NNS interaction conditions and received implicit (recasts), explicit (metalinguistic correction), or no feedback (control) in response to their non‐target‐like oral production of Chinese classifiers. The treatment effects were measured by a grammaticality judgment test and an elicited imitation test. The Words in Sentences subtest of the MLAT was used to measure language analytic ability; a listening span test was utilized as the measure of working memory. A principal components analysis and a structural equation modeling analysis established that working memory was an aptitude component. Multiple regression analyses showed that language analytic ability was predictive of the effects of implicit feedback, and working memory mediated the effects of explicit feedback; all the statistically significant results involved delayed posttest scores. Interpretations were sought with recourse to the mechanisms of the cognitive constructs and the processing demands imposed by the different learning conditions.

In this pilot study we investigated whether metalinguistic explanations (ME) could help young learners (YL) boost their metalinguistic awareness (MA) and, in turn, improve their accuracy at the time of using two grammatical features. Although previous research has established a positive correlation between MA, metalinguistic knowledge (MK) and better learning outcomes in a foreign language (FL), few interventional studies have been conducted in this regard. Using a pretest/post-test design, an intact classroom (N = 20) of L1 Spanish 10-year-old students of English as a FL (EFL) was divided into an experimental and a control group. First, both groups completed an individual pen-and-paper MA test. Then, they were paired up according to their proficiency level and asked to carry out a dictogloss task, in which they had to negotiate their final written output. Before the post-test phase, the experimental group was asked to engage with a learning sequence of ME concerning two problematic English grammatical features: third person –s and his/her. These explanations also included the definitions of metalinguistic terminology. Additionally, an individual three-step verbal protocol was carried out after the post-tests to triangulate collaborative data. The results showed a moderate effect of the treatment in MA scores. Likewise, ME had a large effect on the use of third person –s during the interaction, as well as a moderate effect on the accurate use of his/her. Also, the treatment group dyads produced significantly more episodes of noticing during the post-test task and at a higher resolution rate than during the pretest stage. These findings support the use of explicit learning devices such as ME with YL of EFL, as they seem to promote MA and increase their accuracy even in input-limited learning conditions.

Recent research has demonstrated that written corrective feedback (WCF) has a facilitative role in second language (L2) grammar accuracy improvement. However, most of the studies explored focused WCF which targeted a couple of predetermined errors using a one-time feedback session and they disregarded learner individual variations. The present study aimed to fill the gaps in the previous WCF research by investigating the role of unfocused WCF (i.e., targeting a range of errors) offered via multiple feedback sessions on grammar accuracy improvement, and learners’ individual differences in benefiting from WCF according to their language analytic ability (LAA). The study collected the data from four intact intermediate EFL classrooms at a university. Three classes were feedback groups, and each class received different types of WCF over six weeks: direct correction (DC), coded indirect correction (CIC), and underline indirect correction (UIC). The fourth group engaged in self-editing without WCF and served as a control group. Results showed that DC and CIC led to more improved accuracy than what was obtained from UIC and self-correction. In addition, the process whereby DC and CIC led to accuracy gains differed. Learners’ LAA was found to be strongly related to both DC and CIC while no relationship was found with UIC.

Within limited‐input language classrooms, understanding the effect of distribution of practice (spacing between practice) on learning is critical, yet evidence is conflicting and of limited relevance for young learners. For second language (L2) grammar learning, some studies reveal advantages for spacing of 7 days or more, but others for shorter spacing. Further, little is known about the role of cognitive individual differences (e.g., language analytic ability; LAA) in mediating practice distribution effects for L2 grammatical knowledge development and retention. To address this gap, this classroom‐based study investigated whether distribution of practice and LAA moderated the effectiveness of explicit, input‐based grammar instruction for young first language (L1) English learners of French (aged 8 to 11). The study revealed minimal differences between longer (7‐day) versus shorter (3.5‐day) spacing of practice for learning a French verb inflection subsystem, at either posttest or delayed posttest. Minimal group‐level gains and substantial within‐group variation in performance at posttests were observed. Accuracy of practice during training and LAA were significantly associated with posttest performance under both practice schedules. These findings indicated that within an ecologically valid classroom context, differences in distribution of practice had limited impact on learner performance on our tests; rather, individual learner differences were more critical in moderating learning. This highlights the importance of considering individual learner differences in the development of resources and the potential of digital tools for dynamically adapting instruction to suit individuals.

Form‐focused instruction(FFI) refers to any pedagogical practice aimed at drawing learners' attention to language form. The “form” may consist of phonological (sound), morphosyntactic (word form, word order), lexical, pragmatic, discourse, or orthographical aspects of language. The term owes its origin to a distinction betweenfocus on forms, where a set of predetermined features (e.g., articles, verb tenses) is taught and practiced, andfocus on form, where attention to language is integrated into primarily communicative activities. FFI was originally considered an equivalent of focus on form, but its definition has expanded to include planned focus on structures expected to pose challenges in communication.Much contemporary research on FFI focuses on how different aspects of FFI impact learning. These include comparisons between the benefits of focus on form versus focus on forms, and implicit versus explicit attention to language. Although there is more evidence in favor of explicit techniques, researchers have noted a need for more investigations of effective implicit instruction techniques, and of effective measures of implicit knowledge. Other issues motivating FFI research include whether it is more effective or necessary for certain forms than for others, its timing with respect to learners' developmental readiness, its use with younger learners, the impact of individual learner differences, and social and contextual factors that may influence teachers' and learners' perspectives on FFI.

The purpose of this paper is to review several studies on the effects of language aptitude on the recast-driven acquisition of L2 morphosyntax. Recasts are one of the most commonly used forms of corrective feedback in second language (L2) classrooms. It is clear from research that there are a variety of internal and external factors that affect the ability of L2 learners to benefit from recasting. Among those internal factors, working memory and language analytic ability, as two critical components of language aptitude, have gained increasing attention in recast studies. Given L2 learners’ variability in their ability to notice the gap and extrapolate grammatical rules, working memory and language analytic ability may be responsible for learners’ ability to attend to the recasts provided. By reviewing and synthesizing relevant research, the current literature review demonstrates that despite the inconsistent results and the need for further verification, working memory and language analytic ability, in general, tend to mediate recasts-driven L2 morphosyntax acquisition. Also, L2 learners have demonstrated a disposition to draw upon different components of language aptitude at different second language developmental stages and response to different types of corrective feedback.

The current study investigated the extent to which second language (L2) learners of English benefitted from various combinations of form-focused instruction (FFI) techniques on the acquisition of English articles. Forty-six participants were randomly assigned to four conditions: input enhancement only ( n = 12); input enhancement and metalinguistic explanations ( n = 11); input enhancement, metalinguistic explanations, and practice ( n = 11); and a control condition ( n = 12). They each received six hours of online instruction on English articles according to their condition. The participants’ knowledge of articles was measured by four tasks (i.e. grammaticality judgment task, metalinguistic knowledge task, elicited imitation task, and picture-description task) in a pretest, an immediate posttest, and a delayed posttest. Results showed that the group receiving input enhancement and metalinguistic explanations exhibited clear and durable gains in the metalinguistic knowledge task. Furthermore, a subset of participants who benefitted the most from the instructional treatment revealed two common factors: a first language (L1) without an article system and a high rate of engagement during the online instruction. The findings suggest that metalinguistic explanations clearly contribute to explicit knowledge of articles and that learners’ L1 backgrounds may affect the extent to which FFI on English articles benefits them. The present study contributes meaningfully to the current understanding of the effects of FFI as well as the L2 acquisition of English articles.

ABSTRACT. Not all grammar features are equally noticeable in input. The communicative value of a linguistic feature is one of the important factors that affect perceptual salience. In addition, it is claimed that language learners’ recognition of certain grammar features in incoming input is related to their language analytic ability. However, little research has been conducted to examine the relationship between these two issues. Thus, this study explored how learners recognized recasts that targeted two grammatical morphemes (3rd person –s and locative prepositions), which have different communicative values and relationships with the learners’ language analytic ability. Thirty Korean adult learners of English and three native speakers participated in the study. Each Korean participant engaged in information gap tasks with a native speaker and received recasts on their errors including the two targeted features. The participants’ recognition was documented through stimulated recall protocols. The results showed that learners recognized recasts as correction more often when the feature had a high communicative value (prepositions) and this resulted in more recognition of where they committed errors (i.e., recognition of gaps) compared to cases where the recasts targeted the feature with low communicative value (3rd person –s). In addition, it is also revealed that learners with high analytic ability recognized recasts and gaps better than those with low analytic ability, and this was not affected by the communicative value of the language feature that the recasts targeted.

Despite previous research having demonstrated the comparative effects of processing instruction and output-based instruction, further investigation is required to examine the relationships between individual differences in cognitive abilities and these instructional types. This study investigated the associations among three instructional approaches and learners’ language aptitude and working memory in acquiring four Chinese classifiers. Eighty-six second language (L2) Chinese learners from one Chinese university were divided into three experimental groups – processing instruction (PI), meaning-based output instruction (MOI), combined instruction (CI) – and a control group. Tests measuring treatment effects included an untimed grammatical judgment test and an oral elicited imitation test. The LLAMA test and a counting span task were employed to assess learners’ language aptitude and working memory respectively. Multiple regression analysis suggested that phonetic coding ability was significantly predictive of the effects of PI and CI groups. Language analytic ability and working memory were not predictive of the effects of any experimental groups. The findings suggest that providing metalinguistic explanations followed by output-based language activities may mitigate learners’ cognitive differences in language analytic ability and working memory.

Language-analytic ability, or the ability to treat language as an object of analysis and arrive at linguistic generalizations, is at the core of the constructs of language learning aptitude and metalinguistic awareness, which are implicated in our ability to learn explicitly. In the context of child second language (L2) learning, it has been argued that children learn primarily implicitly and that the most important component of aptitude may be memory ability. However, no empirical research to date has investigated the relationship and development of aptitude and metalinguistic awareness longitudinally as well as examined their predictive power for children’s L2 achievement in the classroom. In a study with English-speaking learners aged 8–9 (N = 111), we found that although aptitude and metalinguistic awareness were (still) dynamic, they significantly predicted children’s achievement in L2 French. Moreover, language-analytic ability proved to be the component with the strongest predictive power. This finding suggests that it may not be level of cognitive maturity alone that determines children’s approach to L2 learning; experiencing explicit, form-focused instruction may foster the role of language-analytic ability even in children as young as 8–9 years.

This chapter clarifies its role as complementary to communicatively oriented or content-based approaches to second and foreign language teaching because form-focused instruction (FFI) is sometimes confused with decontextualized grammar teaching. Emphasizing such an integrated approach to FFI, it outlines its effects on a range of linguistic features by reviewing the relevant literature on instructed second language acquisition (SLA). The chapter reviews of prominent concepts in the literature and provides some of the arguments that have been put forth in support of the importance of FFI. It aims to survey of proactive and reactive FFI techniques, with reference to relevant studies for illustration. These techniques are organized under headings that reflect the stage of acquisition that they target: input enhancement, metalinguistic explanation, practice, and feedback. The chapter considers the integration of FFI within communication-oriented lessons, either content-based or task-based. It also considers FFI as a topic within the domain of language awareness.