Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is a global threat to livestock, human and environmental health. Although resistant bacteria have been detected in wildlife, their role in the epidemiology of antimicrobial resistance is not clear. Our objective was to investigate demographic, temporal and climatic factors associated with carriage of antimicrobial resistant Escherichia coli in raccoons and the environment. We collected samples from raccoon paws and feces and from soil, manure pit and dumpsters on five swine farms and five conservation areas in Ontario, Canada once every five weeks from May to November, 2011–2013 and tested them for E. coli and susceptibility to 15 antimicrobials. Of samples testing positive for E. coli, resistance to ≥ 1 antimicrobials was detected in 7.4% (77/1044; 95% CI, 5.9–9.1) of raccoon fecal samples, 6.3% (23/365; 95% CI, 4.0–9.3) of paw samples, 9.6% (121/1260; 8.0–11.4) of soil samples, 57.4% (31/54; 95% CI, 43.2–70.8) of manure pit samples, and 13.8% (4/29; 95% CI, 3.9–31.7) of dumpster samples. Using univariable logistic regression, there was no significant difference in the occurrence of resistant E. coli in raccoon feces on conservation areas versus farms; however, E. coli isolates resistant to ≥ 1 antimicrobials were significantly less likely to be detected from raccoon paw samples on swine farms than conservation areas and significantly more likely to be detected in soil samples from swine farms than conservation areas. Resistant phenotypes and genotypes that were absent from the swine farm environment were detected in raccoons from conservation areas, suggesting that conservation areas and swine farms may have different exposures to resistant bacteria. However, the similar resistance patterns and genes in E. coli from raccoon fecal and environmental samples from the same location types suggest that resistant bacteria may be exchanged between raccoons and their environment.
Highlights
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public, livestock and environmental health concern [1, 2]
Escherichia coli was isolated from 95.6% (1044/1092; 95% confidence interval (CI), 94.2–96.7) of raccoon fecal samples, 87.7% (365/416 95; 95% CI, 84.2–90.7) of paw samples, 78.4% (1260/1606; 95% CI, 76.4– 80.4) of soil samples, 93.5% (29/31; 95% CI, 3.9–31.7) of dumpster samples, and 78.2% (54/69; 95% CI, 66.7–87.3) of manure pit samples
Of samples testing positive for E. coli, resistance to ! 1 antimicrobials was detected in 7.4% (77/1044; 95% CI, 5.9–9.1) of raccoon fecal samples from 616 individuals, 6.3% (23/365; 95% CI, 4.0–9.3) of paw samples from 259 individuals, 9.6% (121/1260; 8.0–11.4) of soil samples, 57.4% (31/54; 95% CI, 43.2–70.8) of manure pit samples, and 13.8% (4/29; 95% CI, 3.9–31.7) of dumpster samples
Summary
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public, livestock and environmental health concern [1, 2]. Wildlife are generally not deliberately exposed to antimicrobials, resistant bacteria have been detected in the fecal bacteria of a variety of wild animals in various locations around the world [5,6,7,8,9,10]. But not universally, wild animals living in close proximity to humans and agriculture carry more resistant bacteria than those living in areas with little anthropogenic influence [10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18]. Wildlife living in the most remote areas of the world typically carry little to no antimicrobial resistant bacteria [14, 19,20,21,22]
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