Environmental Risk, Human Health, and Toxic Effects of Nanoparticles

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Nanoparticles ranging in dimension from 1 to 100 nm have unique physicochemical, optical, and biological properties. Hence, in recent years, there has been an increase in the synthesis and application of nanoparticles in the field of medicine and technology. Both organic and metallic nanoparticles are used extensively in pharmaceutical, consumer, textile, food packaging, and industrial products. Nanoparticles have gained significant interest owing to their small size and unique properties. However, with the decrease in size, there is an increase in the inherent toxicity of nanoparticles. The metals silver, gold, aluminum, and copper are inert in their bulk form but as particle size decreases, these metal-based nanoparticles exhibit increased toxicity. Prolonged exposure to nanoparticles can have an adverse effect on human health and the environment. In this chapter, the diverse applications of the various organic and inorganic nanoparticles will be briefly explored. The biological properties of nanoparticles used in biomedical applications such as in bioimaging and therapeutics will be discussed. Further, the impact of nanoparticles on human health will be reviewed with a special focus on the cytoxicity and genotoxicity of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles enter the body by inhalation, injection into the bloodstream, and passage through the skin. They also have the potential to penetrate the blood–brain barrier due to their small size. Nanoparticles can interact with proteins and enzymes, alter gene expression, and thus affect the biological behavior at the organ, tissue, cellular, subcellular, and protein levels. The toxicity of nanoparticles can be completely understood by a number of in vitro, in vivo, genomic, and biodistribution studies. As a single in vitro assay may not be helpful, multiple cell-based assays using different doses of nanoparticles and animal studies have to be performed to understand the potential toxicity of nanoparticles. Therefore, the efficacy of the various in vitro and in vivo models used to study the toxicity of nanoparticles is comparatively assessed in this chapter. The interaction of nanoparticles in the environment depends upon their size, chemical composition, surface properties, solubility, aggregation behavior, biokinetics, and biopersistence. The environmental exposure and ecotoxicity of the nanoparticles incorporated in textile and consumer products will be addressed. Finally, the various safety measures that can be taken to reduce the health and environmental risks associated with the use of nanoparticles will be discussed.