Abstract
Meeting agricultural demand in the face of a changing climate will be one of the major challenges of the 21st century. California is the single largest agricultural producer in the United States but is prone to extreme hydrologic events, including multi-year droughts. Ventura County is one of California’s most productive growing regions but faces water shortages and deteriorating water quality. The future of California’s agriculture is dependent on our ability to identify and implement alternative irrigation water sources and technologies. Two such alternative water sources are recycled and desalinated water. The proximity of high-value crops in Ventura County to both dense population centers and the Pacific Ocean makes it a prime candidate for alternative water sources. This study uses highly localized spatial and temporal data to assess life-cycle energy use, life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions, operational costs, applied water demand, and on-farm labor requirements for four high-value crops. A complete switch from conventional irrigation with groundwater and surface water to recycled water would increase the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions associated with strawberry, lemon, celery, and avocado production by approximately 14%, 7%, 59%, and 9%, respectively. Switching from groundwater and surface water to desalinated water would increase life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions by 33%, 210%, 140%, and 270%, respectively. The use of recycled or desalinated water for irrigation is most financially tenable for strawberries due to their relatively high value and close proximity to water treatment facilities. However, changing strawberry packaging has a greater potential impact on life-cycle energy use and greenhouse gas emissions than switching the water source. While this analysis does not consider the impact of water quality on crop yields, previous studies suggest that switching to recycled water could result in significant yield increases due to its lower salinity.
Highlights
Recent estimates indicate that approximately four billion people live under conditions of severe water scarcity at least one month out of the year [1]
Since this study focuses on freshwater stress in Ventura County, the results presented reflect applied irrigation water; any upstream water use have been excluded from the analysis
For each individual field, (1) we determined whether the field currently draws from groundwater or surface water based on the water purveyor, (2) if groundwater is used, we identified the groundwater depth of the closest well located within the same groundwater basin as the field, and (3) we quantified additional crop-specific onfarm water-related energy use
Summary
Recent estimates indicate that approximately four billion people live under conditions of severe water scarcity at least one month out of the year [1]. Water shortages are projected to increase in the decades to come as a result of both demand-side drivers (e.g. population growth, urbanization, economic development) and reductions in supply due to climate change [2]. Agriculture accounts for more than two-thirds of global freshwater withdrawals and over 90% of consumptive water use [3]. Water needs will increase as demand for food is expected to increase 50% by 2030 [4]. To satisfy agriculture’s thirst for water, regions including Australia, the European Union, Israel, and parts of the United States have turned to recycled municipal wastewater [5–8]. In drought-prone regions, recycled water can be a reliable, cost-effective alternative to conventional irrigation sources. This is pertinent for California, one of the world’s most productive agricultural regions with a long history of water challenges
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