Enhancing the Quality of “Produced Water” by Activated Carbon

The project objective was to develop a cooling blowdown water (BDW) treatment process utilizing produced water (PW) and low-grade heat to maximize water reuse and saleable by-product generation while reducing chemical and energy footprints of the treatment. The proposed treatment process consists of mixing, softening, organics and suspended solids removal, reverse osmosis (RO), thermal desalination, and brine electrolysis. BDW samples collected from a local coal-fired power plant and PW samples from two shale gas production wells were used in this study. Each treatment unit was first designed and tested to quantify its treatment efficiency, and its chemical and energy requirements. In addition, a process model was developed and model simulations were conducted based on the experimental results and literature data to optimize the treatment process. A techno-economic analysis was conducted to quantify chemical and energy savings as well as production of 10-lb brine as a saleable product. With the field-collected BDW and PW samples, mixing experiments determined a volumetric mixing ratio 10:1 (BDW:PW) resulted in the best performance of multivalent ions removal and largest chemical savings for softening. Softening of the BDW/PW mixtures using alkaline chemicals (Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> and NaOH) achieved 95%-100% removal of scaling-forming cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Ba, Sr) and 60% of silicon, and 10% of total organic carbon (TOC). The mixing and softening treatments yielded an effluent with total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration of 23 g/L. Activated carbon (AC) filtration removed TOC to a low level (< 3 mg/L) and further removed remaining scale-forming divalent metals and silica from the softened water. The AC filtration resulted in a slight reduction of TDS from 23 g/L to 20 g/L, leaving behind only mostly monovalent ions (i.e., sodium and chloride) in the filtered water. These pretreatments yielded a feed water that met the criteria of the downstream reverse osmosis (RO) to prevent membrane fouling. A cross-flow RO system was used to further concentrate the TDS of the AC effluent. Various factors including TDS, pH, and applied pressure were examined and optimal conditions were determined for the co-treatment process. An integrated process consisting of mixing, softening, AC filtration and RO was used to treat a continuous flow (0.25 – 1.2 L/min, or 0.07 – 0.32 gpm) and successfully generated RO permeate as product water (TDS < 0.5 g/L) for reuse in cooling operation, and a concentrate (TDS ~ 45 g/L) to be further treated in a thermal desalination unit. These flow rates meet the FOA’s criterion of 0.01 – 1 gpm. Overall, the co-treatment of BDW/PW allowed shorter ramp-up time compared to treatment of BDW alone. It resulted in 40% and 55% savings of Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3(s)</sub> and NaOH, respectively, compared to treating the BDW and PW individually for the same level of softening. The co-treatment also resulted in a 29% energy saving compared to treatment of BDW only for the level of TDS concentration. A thermal desalination system was designed using CFD simulations and manufactured in the WVU Innovation Hub for further treatment of the RO concentrate to generate 10-lb brine. The system has a design flow rate of 2 gpm and has been successfully tested. A bench-scale brine electrolysis system was developed for on-site generation of chlorine/hypochlorite (Cl<sub>2</sub>/OCl<sup>-</sup>) and caustic soda (NaOH) as useful chemicals for the co-treatment process. Using salt solutions (0.5 M and 1 M), the system achieved faradaic efficiencies of 93%-97% and 70%-77% for caustic soda and chlorine/hypochlorite generation, respectively. An economic analysis showed that the electricity costs for on-site generation of these chemicals were significantly lower than the chemical prices offered by suppliers. An industrial-scale process model consisting of mixing, softening, AC filtration, RO, thermal desalination, and brine electrolysis was developed using the Aspen Plus V9 in conjunction with Aspen Custom Modeler V9. The model serves as a solvable Aspen Plus model and as basis to form the costing infrastructure. In addition, techno-economic analysis considering capital, operating, and transportation costs was conducted. An optimization solution showed that produced water for mixing is still advantageous in low quantities. The optimum solution approaches a leveled cost of water (LCW) of 2 $/m<sup>3</sup> which becomes cost competitive with nominal water treatment prices.

Water is considered a life-sustaining resource on this planet Earth. Similarly, rivers are considered the lifeline of society. Rivers keep themselves in good condition due to their self-cleansing power. Indiscriminate dumping of solid and liquid waste due to enhanced urbanisation and industrialisation has reduced the self-cleansing capacity of the rivers, and as a result, the rivers get polluted. Therefore in the current investigation, water quality status of river Ramganga was assessed at the selected sites of three different districts (Moradabad, Rampur, and Bareilly) of western Uttar Pradesh, India based on their Limnological characteristics {Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Phosphate (PO4 3-), Nitrate (NO3 -), Sulphate (SO4 2-), Iron (Fe), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn)}. The obtained data were processed to calculate the water quality index (WQI), heavy metal pollution index (HPI), and heavy metal evaluation index (HEI). It was observed that the studied physicochemical parameters were within the limits of the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), except TDS. The values of studied heavy metals were found beyond the ideal limit of BIS, except for zinc. The obtained WQI values elucidate that the river water is unsuitable for consumption (WQI is > 100) except at SS-4 and 5, where water quality falls in the very poor category (WQI=75-100). Based on HPI, the water quality of raw water falls in the unsuitable for drinking category (HPI is > 10), showing a higher concentration of heavy metals in the river. HEI values were also found in the higher zone (HEI is > 20). Heavy metals are major contributory factors in the quality degradation of the river Ramganga water. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a wastewater treatment facility along the river coast to protect the water quality and flora and fauna of rivers.

Abstract. Atmospheric carbon monoxide (CO) and methane (CH4) mole fractions are measured by ground-based in situ cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) analyzers and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers at two sites (St Denis and Maïdo) on Reunion Island (21∘ S, 55∘ E) in the Indian Ocean. Currently, the FTIR Bruker IFS 125HR at St Denis records the direct solar spectra in the near-infrared range, contributing to the Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON). The FTIR Bruker IFS 125HR at Maïdo records the direct solar spectra in the mid-infrared (MIR) range, contributing to the Network for the Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC). In order to understand the atmospheric CO and CH4 variability on Reunion Island, the time series and seasonal cycles of CO and CH4 from in situ and FTIR (NDACC and TCCON) measurements are analyzed. Meanwhile, the difference between the in situ and FTIR measurements are discussed. The CO seasonal cycles observed from the in situ measurements at Maïdo and FTIR retrievals at both St Denis and Maïdo are in good agreement with a peak in September–November, primarily driven by the emissions from biomass burning in Africa and South America. The dry-air column averaged mole fraction of CO (XCO) derived from the FTIR MIR spectra (NDACC) is about 15.7 ppb larger than the CO mole fraction near the surface at Maïdo, because the air in the lower troposphere mainly comes from the Indian Ocean while the air in the middle and upper troposphere mainly comes from Africa and South America. The trend for CO on Reunion Island is unclear during the 2011–2017 period, and more data need to be collected to get a robust result. A very good agreement is observed in the tropospheric and stratospheric CH4 seasonal cycles between FTIR (NDACC and TCCON) measurements, and in situ and the Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS) satellite measurements, respectively. In the troposphere, the CH4 mole fraction is high in August–September and low in December–January, which is due to the OH seasonal variation. In the stratosphere, the CH4 mole fraction has its maximum in March–April and its minimum in August–October, which is dominated by vertical transport. In addition, the different CH4 mole fractions between the in situ, NDACC and TCCON CH4 measurements in the troposphere are discussed, and all measurements are in good agreement with the GEOS-Chem model simulation. The trend of XCH4 is 7.6±0.4 ppb yr−1 from the TCCON measurements over the 2011 to 2017 time period, which is consistent with the CH4 trend of 7.4±0.5 ppb yr−1 from the in situ measurements for the same time period at St Denis.

Heavy metals poisoning of soil and water has resulted from industrial expansion in Lahore, Pakistan, creating a significant environmental hazard. As a result, monitoring the contamination of soil and water around industrial sites is critical. The fact that higher concentrations of heavy metals have a negative influence on both plants and human life and this cannot be ignored. Higher heavy metal concentrations have a direct impact on human health due to their presence in drinking water. Consumable plants and vegetables cultivated in these polluted areas may collect higher concentrations of heavy metals from soil and water via the phytoremediation process. Its worth mentioning that the accumulation of toxic metals in edible plants and vegetables also has a direct negative impact on human and animal health. The purpose of this study is to find the heavy metals concentration in the soil and ground water in the Lahore area. Five industrial zones were evaluated for water and soil throughout the research period of December 2021 to January 2022 (pre-monsoon). pH and heavy metals content measurements were performed on the collected soil and water samples. We discovered that the water had a higher pH and that the soil was heavily contaminated with significantly higher concentrations of toxic heavy metals. According to the research, there is a gangrenous influence of pollution caused by industrial waste and the surrounding environment on soil and water resources, which affects living creatures. Keywords: Environmental Pollution, Heavy Metal, Pollution, Water pollution, Soil pollution

Purpose – In this research, we have prepared activated carbon (AC) from the waste of banana peels (Musa acuminate L.) using potassium hydroxide (KOH) for carbon monoxide (CO) adsorption from motorcycle gas emission. Design/Methodology/Approach – The activation was conducted using a chemical activator (KOH) at various concentrations of 1, 2, and 3 N for 1, 2, and 3 h, respectively. Characteristics of banana peels AC (BPAC) produced were analyzed using the Fourier-transform infra-red spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Findings – Results showed that KOH concentration and activation time strongly affected the CO adsorption and opening of the AC surface pore. There was an increase in the CO sorption when the KOH concentration was increased up to 3 N concentration. The highest CO adsorption from the emission occurred at 70.95% under KOH concentration of 3 N during the 3-h preparation. Research Limitations/Implications – BPAC has been used as an adsorbent for only CO from motorcycle gas emission but not as an adsorbent for HC, NO, NOx, or H2S. Practical Implications – BPAC can be used as the potential adsorbent for the removal of CO from motorcycle gas emission, and it is an environmental friendly, low cost, and easy to make adsorbent. Originality/Value – In this study, the AC is made from biomass and is used in wastewater treatment, but limited studies are found on the removal of CO from motorcycle gas emission.

Adsorptive Treatment of Landfill Leachate using Activated Carbon Modified with Three Different Methods

Regular intercomparison of different observing systems is a part of their testing and validation protocol, which gives the estimates of real measurement errors. The main objective of our study is the comparison of satellite and ground-based measurements of atmospheric composition near Saint Petersburg, Russia. Since early 2009, high-resolution Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) solar absorption spectra have been recorded at Peterhof station (59.82° N, 29.88° E), located in the suburbs of Saint Petersburg. We derived column amounts of O3, HCl, HF, and NO2 from these spectra using the retrieval codes SFIT2 and PROFFIT. We compared the data retrieved from Bruker 125 HR FTIR measurements with coincident satellite observations of the Microwave Limb Sounding (MLS), Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI), Fourier Transform Spectrometer from Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment (ACE-FTS), Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME and GOME-2), and Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric Chartography (SCIAMACHY) instruments. The relative differences in ozone columns of FTIR from OMI-TOMS amount within (+3.4 ± 2.9)%, from GOME-2 are (+2.2 ± 3.0)%. The comparison of FTIR and MLS measurements of stratospheric ozone columns gives no mean and 5% of the RMS differences. Measurements of NO2 columns agree with the mean difference of +9% and the RMS differences within 14–16% for FTIR vs. GOME-2, SCIAMACHY, and OMI. FTIR vs. GOME comparison gives (+6 ± 31)%. HCl columns comparison for FTIR vs. MLS shows −4.5% in the mean and 12% in the RMS differences. FTIR vs. ACE-FTS comparison (nine cases) gives −8% and 10% for the mean and the RMS relative differences, respectively. Comparison of HF columns shows (−12 ± 6)% and (−12 ± 11)% for FTIR vs. ACE data v.2.2 and v.3.0, respectively. These figures show that the Peterhof ground-based FTIR measuring system can be used to support the validation of satellite data in the monitoring of stratospheric gases.

An overview of heavy metals treatment & management for laboratory waste liquid (LWL)

The removal of contaminated dyes in wastewater via Activated Carbon (AC) technology is a promising alternative to current conventional pollution-free technologies. Herein, the commercial AC with enhanced adsorption performance capacity were comprehensively investigated via modulating with the alkali-acid treatment. The removal of a highly concentrated methylene blue solution was evaluated via a commercial AC treated with deionized water (AC-DI), potassium hydroxide (AC-KOH) and nitric acid (AC-HNO3). The physicochemical properties of the modified AC were characterized using Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) and Surface area analyzer and Porosity analysis (SAP). The AC modified with deionized water (AC-DI) exhibited superior adsorption performance with 99% of methylene blue removal within 8 hours. Gratifyingly, the AC-DI has the fastest adsorption uptake within 2 hours in comparison to AC, AC-KOH and AC-HNO3 samples. The superior methylene blue removal performance of AC-DI was attributed to the enhanced surface group functionalization over the surface of AC evidenced from the FTIR analysis. In addition, the better crystallinity of AC-DI sample as shown in XRD and FESEM micrograph analysis does help to improve the adsorption of contaminated dye molecules onto the surface complex of AC, results in a superior rate of methylene blue removal. These results suggest that the alkali-acid treatment shows promises in enhancing the adsorption rate capabilities of commercial AC for the removal of basic dyes from wastewater.

Stormwater quality in an urban watershed can be influenced by several factors, including land use patterns, atmospheric deposition, and human activities. The objective of this study was to investigate spatial and temporal changes in stormwater quality and heavy metal content during the rainfall–runoff in an urban sub-catchment (30 ha) in the town of Olsztyn (NE Poland). Samples were collected from six locations along the rainfall–runoff pathway, including the following direct rainfall and runoff locations: roof runoff, surface runoff, storm collector, and the river. Parameters such as pH, specific conductivity, fluorescent dissolved organic matter (fDOM), total dissolved solids (TDS), and turbidity were measured in situ, while samples were analyzed for heavy metal content (Cu, Cr, Fe, Ni, Zn, and Pb) in the lab (ICP-OES). The results showed significant changes in water quality along the runoff. The highest concentrations of heavy metals were found in samples from a stormwater collector and surface runoff, particularly in winter and spring, due to the increased deposition of air pollutants and salt washout from roads. This study highlights the importance of monitoring stormwater quality and heavy metals in urban watersheds in terms of impacts on the river ecosystem as a recipient of stormwater. Solutions such as green infrastructure and stormwater management are proposed to mitigate the impacts of urbanization on water quality and protect the aquatic environment.

Heavy metals (HMs) are hazardous contaminants with persistence and bioaccumulation, attracting widespread attention. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) play vital roles in the pollution control of sewage, closely related to human health and the biological environment. Therefore, eight HMs in three typical WWTPs of Nanjing were determined in this study. The results revealed that Cr, Ni, Cu, and Zn were high-level HMs in all WWTPs. Notably, the highest contents of high-level HMs were found in electroplating WWTP (EWWTP) influent among three WWTPs, probably causing their higher removal (19.34−55.32%) during their primary treatment. In contrast, most HMs could be removed in the secondary treatment stage of municipal WWTP (MWWTP) and industrial WWTP (IWWTP) with the highest removal of As (72.00−85.81%). Analogously, nutrients were mainly removed during the secondary stage, with superior performance in MWWTP. A decrease in HMs removal was observed in the tertiary treatment of MWWTP and IWWTP compared to the secondary stage, while higher HMs removal (0.51−29.15%) was found in EWWTP except Hg. The highest content of HMs in sludge was Zn and Cr, which was more abundant in EWWTP than other WWTPs. The results of Illumina Miseq sequencing demonstrated the inhibition of microbial richness and diversity of EWWTP and IWWTP by industrial wastewater. Besides, alterations of microbial community structure and components were also observed owing to various influent sources. More similarity was found between EWWTP and MWWTP, in which the abundance of dominant genera, including Saccharimonadales (7.60−9.56%), Raineyella (5.06−7.38%), and Thauera (2.48−4.45%) was much higher than IWWTP.

Aim: Quality of underground and Indus river surface water at Kalabagh, Pakistan was monitored to investigate the anthropogenic activities in the region because people of the Mianwali district often suffer from rusty spot on their teeth and clothes. Material and Methods: Fully flush sampling method was used for underground water samples. Surface water samples were collected from the main river flow. Conductivity, total dissolved solid (TDS), pH, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) were measured using the standard procedures. Heavy metals were determined by plasma atomic emission spectrophotometry. Results: The obtained results were compared with the set limits of National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQs) and World Health Organization (WHO). In river water samples, the average levels for BOD, COD, TDS, conductivity, pH and heavy metals were exceeding the limits of NEQs and WHO. In underground water samples of Kamer village, levels for COD, BOD, TDS and heavy metals such as cadmium and chromium were below their maximum contamination limits (MCL). However, the levels for pH, conductivity, iron and manganese were above the limits of MCL. In underground water samples from Mianwali city, the parameters including BOD, COD, TDS and heavy metals, including cadmium and chromium were below their MCL, while the conductivity, pH, and heavy metals were also observed higher than their MCL. Conclusion: The investigated parameters for river water like dissolved oxygen (DO), BOD, COD, TDS, iron, manganese, lead, cadmium were reported above MCL. In underground drinking water of Kamer village and river water samples of Mianwali city areas, the concentration levels for lead, iron and manganese were also found higher than their MCL. This may be one of cause for rusty spot on teeth and clothes of the residents. The statistical linear correlation study indicates that metals might have their origin from anthropogenic activities and natural influences.

Banana (Musa acuminata balbisiana) peel had some potential using, especially in bioethanol. It was indicated that Banana peel (Musa acuminata balbisiana) had carbohydrates abundance. Banana (Musa acuminata balbisiana) peel can be cropped in some season, not only in a specific seasons. So that, Banana (Musa acuminata balbisiana) peel could be gotten easily. Banana (Musa acuminata balbisiana) peel as the trash is usually thrown away or animal feed needed. Banana (Musa acuminata balbisiana) peel had carbohydrate higher content, so it gave a lot of potential in bioethanol application. But, we needed to understand about the results of fermentation process. Characterization had been done to understand the fermentation of Banana peel product. The raw materials gotten from dried Banana peel with the amount of 50 gram in each of 100 ml beaker glass. The yeast solution had been made in 15% (w/v), 25% (w/v), and 35% (w/v) in water solvent. The fermentation process was carried out during 96 hours, then the clear liquid was separated by decantation process from the mixture. The distillation process was done to purify the product on 80°C degrees. The distillate was measured by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to identify the specific peaks. The FTIR measurement was used Octagonal Cell Windows FTIR Prestige 21 Shimadzu. The FTIR spectrum showed characteristic peaks of bioethanol at 3404.01 cm-1 (-OH bonds); 2933.54 cm-1 (-C-H bonds); and 1011.06 cm-1 (-C-O bonds). From the FTIR analysis could be concluded that fermentation of Banana peel gave bioethanol. Keywords: Bioethanol, Banana peel, yeast, fermentation process, Biocatalyst

Heavy metals in water sources can threaten human life and the environment. The analysis time, need for chemical reagents, and sample amount per analysis assist in monitoring contaminants. Application of the Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Spectroscopy for the investigation of heavy metal elements has significantly developed due to its cost effectiveness and accuracy. Use of chemometric models such as Partial Least Square (PLS) and Principle Component Regression Analysis (PCA) relate the multiple spectral intensities from numerous calibration samples to the recognized analytes. This study focused on the FT-IR calibration and quantification of heavy metals (Ag, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) in surveyed water sources. FT-IR measurements were compared with the atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS) measurements. Quantitative analysis methods, PCA and PLS, were used in the FT-IR calibration. The spectral analyses were done using the Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR-FTIR) technique on three river and four borehole water sources sampled within two seasons in QwaQwa, South Africa (SA). The PLS models had good R2 values ranging from 0.95 to 1 and the PCA models ranged from 0.98 to 0.99. Significant differences were seen at 0.001 and 0.05 levels between the PLS and PCA models for detecting Cd and Pb in the water samples. The PCA models detected Ag concentrations more (˂0 mg L−1 on selected sites). Both the PLS and PCA models had lower detection only for Zn ions mostly above 45 mg L−1 deviating from the AAS measurements (<0.020 mg L−1). The FT-IR spectroscopy demonstrated good potential for heavy metal determination purposes.

Produced water often contains high levels of total dissolved solids (TDS) in addition to precipitates, suspended particles, and hydrocarbons. The main components of the dissolved solids include sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts. The combination of high salinity and hardness can be very damaging to many types of fracturing fluids that are commonly formulated with fresh water. It is usually costly to treat high-TDS produced water to such an extent that it can be safely and stably used to formulate fracturing fluids. On the other hand, fresh water for formulating fracturing fluids is becoming more costly and more difficult to obtain in many oil/gas production areas. Fluid systems have therefore been highly desirable and sought after that can be formulated directly with high-TDS hard produced water and perform well at high temperature of 275 °F or above. A series of fracturing fluids were successfully identified recently that performed very well at high temperatures when formulated with untreated high-TDS produced water. The produced water samples tested had TDS up to about 330,000 mg/L and hardness (calcium carbonate equivalent) up to about 90,000 mg/L. The fracturing fluids comprised of organometallic-crosslinked derivatized polysaccharide. In one typical example, the viscosity stayed above 100 cP (at 100/s shear rate) for over 80 minutes at 275 °F recorded for a fracturing fluid prepared with untreated produced water with TDS of about 300,000 mg/L and hardness of about 50,000 mg/L. The magnitude and lifetime of the fluid viscosity were dependent on a number of factors such as the water TDS and hardness, test temperature, polymer loading, fluid pH, etc. The fracturing fluids also showed minimum damage to the formation or proppant pack tested. In representative proppant pack conductivity tests, the retained conductivity was about 73% at 200 °F and about 89% at 250 °F for the fracturing fluids mixed with appropriate amount of oxidative breaker. The underlying mechanisms of the high-temperature fracturing fluids prepared with untreated extremely high-TDS and hard produced water will be discussed, and the field-related laboratory tests will be presented. Introduction Produced water usually refers to water that is produced along with oil/gas from hydrocarbon wells. Flowback water can be considered as a type of produced water. Flowback water usually refers to fracturing fluid that flows back through the well that may account for part of the original fracturing fluid volume. Broadly defined, produced water may refer to any unclean oilfield water (Li et al. 2010) including produced formation water, flowback water, pit water, contaminated river water, etc. Produced water often contains high levels of salinity and hardness. Produced water is often subjected to evaporation that may further increase its TDS and hardness to near saturation values. Produced water samples, especially those from shale formations such as Marcellus and Bakken, have high TDS and divalent cation contents (Zhou et al. 2013). When measured by volume, produced water is the largest waste generated during the production of hydrocarbons (Stephenson 1992).