Enhanced expectancies benefit performance under distraction, but compromise it under stress: Exploring the OPTIMAL theory

Abstract

Motor learning can benefit from practice under enhanced expectancies; that is, the belief one can generate an intended positive outcome. According to the OPTIMAL (Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning) theory, this benefit manifests from a greater coupling between action and its external consequences, which potentially coincides with a more automatic mode of control. The aim of the study was to examine this possibility, and in so doing, understand more about the psycho-motor processes underpinning the influence of expectancies. On Day 1, novice participants practiced a dart-throwing task under enhanced (EE) (n = 11), reduced (RE) (n = 12) or no (control; CTL) (n = 12) expectancies. Enhanced and reduced expectancies were indirectly manipulated by positively reinforcing shots that landed within the large or small circle on the dartboard, respectively. On Day 2, participants transferred to a dual-task (i.e., tone-counting) or stress (i.e., social-comparative threat, false feedback) setting. While there was no evidence of improvement across practice, RE was significantly worse than CTL for the dual-task, but EE was significantly worse than RE and CTL under stress (ps < 0.05). Therefore, the ability of EE to retain performance within the dual-task, but decline under stress, suggests a more automatic mode of control was adopted. Both theoretical and practical implications are discussed.