Energy flow, carbon and water footprints in vineyards and orchards to determine environmentally favourable sites in accordance with Natura 2000 perspective

Abstract

Abstract The assessment of energy flow in agroecosystems can help to select the best management strategies for cultivated species. Conventional and organic vineyards and kiwi orchards along with conventional, integrated and organic apple orchards were selected from sites located both in and out Natura 2000 network to (a) determine energy efficiency of the farming systems, (b) estimate gas emissions along with carbon and water footprint, (c) reveal groups of farming systems on the basis of their similarities to energy efficiency, carbon and water footprint. Forty one farms (ten conventional and five organic vineyards; five conventional and three organic kiwi orchards; six conventional, four organic and eight integrated apple orchards) were selected during the years 2010–2013 in the Prefecture of Pella, northern Greece. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) revealed three main Groups of farms. In descending order, the contributors in cluster formation were CO2-equivalent, energy efficiency, and water footprint. Group 3 had the highest CO2-equivalent per fruit production. The vineyards of Group 3 located at the highest altitude resulted in highest labor, diesel, branch shoring, intensity, energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CH4, and N2O). They showed the lowest irrigation, total water consumption, energy outputs, and energy productivity. Group 2 had the highest water consumption per fruit production. Group 1 showed high environmental advantages since it had the lowest CO2-equivalent, the highest energy efficiency, and intermediate water footprint. The above indices are useful to decision makers for seeking crops and farming systems in order to regulate the fragile balance between Natura 2000 network and agriculture.