Energy Efficiency Retrofits in Commercial Buildings: An Environmental, Financial, and Technical Analysis of Case Studies in Thailand

This study focuses on low-carbon transitions in the mid-term and analyzes mitigation potentials of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2020 and 2030 in a comparison based on bottom-up-type models. The study provides in-depth analyses of technological mitigation potentials and costs by sector and analyzes marginal abatement cost (MAC) curves from 0 to 200 US $/tCO2 eq in major countries. An advantage of this study is that the technological feasibility of reducing GHG emissions is identified explicitly through looking at distinct technological options. However, the results of MAC curves using the bottom-up approach vary widely according to region and model due to the various differing assumptions. Thus, this study focuses on some comparable variables in order to analyze the differences between MAC curves. For example, reduction ratios relative to 2005 in Annex I range from 9 % to 31 % and 17 % to 34 % at 50 US $/tCO2 eq in 2020 and 2030, respectively. In China and India, results of GHG emissions relative to 2005 vary very widely due to the difference in baseline emissions as well as the diffusion rate of mitigation technologies. Future portfolios of advanced technologies and energy resources, especially nuclear and renewable energies, are the most prominent reasons for the difference in MAC curves. Transitions toward a low-carbon society are not in line with current trends, and will require drastic GHG reductions, hence it is important to discuss how to overcome various existing barriers such as energy security constraints and technological restrictions.

Agriculture in Africa requires substantial investments, public and private, to increase agriculture productivity and achieve food security. Climate-smart agriculture options showing a win-win potential between food security and climate change adaptation on one side, and mitigation on the other side would enhance the capacity of the agriculture sector to sustainably support food security, incorporating the need for adaptation and the potential for mitigation into development strategies. The paper discusses a three-phase methodology to analyze the national agriculture investment plans with reference to climate change mitigation, through a combination of biological and economic modeling. Agriculture investments which can deliver food security and adaptation benefits are tested for their mitigation potential through a rapid screening methodology aimed at verifying the potential increase in Carbon sequestration and reduction in greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. The mitigation benefits are estimated using the Ex-ante Carbon balance Tool (Ex-act) which can estimate the impact on GHG emissions and carbon sequestration of different land use and change scenarios. Last, Marginal abatement cost (MAC) curves are built in order to identify the least cost options. MAC curves show the order in which measures can be implemented and the relative cost of mitigation measures. Malawi case study is used as empirical application of the proposed methodology.

Cool roofs, cool pavements, and urban vegetation reduce energy use in buildings, lower local air pollutant concentrations, and decrease greenhouse gas emissions from urban areas. This report summarizes the results of a detailed monitoring project in India and related simulations of meteorology and air quality in three developing countries. The field results quantified direct energy savings from installation of cool roofs on individual commercial buildings. The measured annual energy savings potential from roof-whitening of previously black roofs ranged from 20-22 kWh/m2 of roof area, corresponding to an air-conditioning energy use reduction of 14-26% in commercial buildings. The study estimated that typical annual savings of 13-14 kWh/m2 of roof area could be achieved by applying white coating to uncoated concrete roofs on commercial buildings in the Metropolitan Hyderabad region, corresponding to cooling energy savings of 10-19%. With the assumption of an annual increase of 100,000 square meters of new roof construction for the next 10 years in the Metropolitan Hyderabad region, the annual cooling energy savings due to whitening concrete roof would be 13-14 GWh of electricity in year ten alone, with cumulative 10-year cooling energy savings of 73-79 GWh for the region. The estimated savings for the entire country would be at least 10 times the savings in Hyderabad, i.e., more than 730-790 GWh. We estimated that annual direct CO2 reduction associated with reduced energy use would be 11-12 kg CO2/m2 of flat concrete roof area whitened, and the cumulative 10-year CO2 reduction would be approximately 0.60-0.65 million tons in India. With the price of electricity estimated at seven Rupees per kWh, the annual electricity savings on air-conditioning would be approximately 93-101 Rupees per m2 of roof. This would translate into annual national savings of approximately one billion Rupees in year ten, and cumulative 10-year savings of over five billion Rupees for cooling energy in India. Meteorological simulations in this study indicated that a reduction of 2C in air temperature in the Hyderabad area would be likely if a combination of increased surface albedo and vegetative cover are used as urban heat-island control strategies. In addition, air-temperature reductions on the order of 2.5-3.5C could be achieved if moderate and aggressive heat-island mitigation measures are adopted, respectively. A large-scale deployment of mitigation measures can bring additional indirect benefit to the urban area. For example, cooling outside air can improve the efficiency of cooling systems, reduce smog and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and indirectly reduce pollution from power plants - all improving environmental health quality. This study has demonstrated the effectiveness of cool-roof technology as one of the urban heat-island control strategies for the Indian industrial and scientific communities and has provided an estimate of the national energy savings potential of cool roofs in India. These outcomes can be used for developing cool-roof building standards and related policies in India. Additional field studies, built upon the successes and lessons learned from this project, may be helpful to further confirm the scale of potential energy savings from the application of cooler roofs in various regions of India. In the future, a more rigorous meteorological simulation using urbanized (meso-urban) meteorological models should be conducted, which may produce a more accurate estimate of the air-temperature reductions for the entire urban area.

Energy consumption in commercial buildings and the resulting production of green house gas emissions continues to be one of the major challenges facing the United States. With more than 80 percent of the energy consumed by buildings occurring during their operational phase, most policies and programs over the last decade have focused on the design requirements for new and renovated buildings to ensure reductions in energy use during building operation. These policies are primarily focusing on the technical aspect of building systems, ignoring the role played by occupants' behavior, and most importantly how to influence this behavior to reduce energy consumption. Various approaches have proven to be effective in inducing behavioral changes such as energy conservation campaigns, financial incentives, feedback techniques, and others. This paper presents an agent-based approach to modeling these methods, simulating their impact on occupants' behavior, and predicting their effect on building energy use and costs.

Energy consumption in commercial buildings and the resulting production of green house gas emissions continues to be one of the major challenges facing the United States. With more than 80 percent of the energy consumed by buildings occurring during their operational phase, most policies and programs over the last decade have focused on the design requirements for new and renovated buildings to ensure reductions in energy use during building operation. These policies are primarily focusing on the technical aspect of building systems, ignoring the role played by occupants' behavior, and most importantly how to influence this behavior to reduce energy consumption. Various approaches have proven to be effective in inducing behavioral changes such as energy conservation campaigns, financial incentives, feedback techniques, and others. This paper presents an agent-based approach to modeling these methods, simulating their impact on occupants' behavior, and predicting their effect on building energy use and costs.

Energy Information Systems (EIS) for buildings are becoming widespread in the U.S., with more companies offering EIS products every year. As a result, customers are often overwhelmed by the quickly expanding portfolio of EIS feature and application options, which have not been clearly identified for consumers. The object of this report is to provide a technical overview of currently available EIS products. In particular, this report focuses on web-based EIS products for large commercial buildings, which allow data access and control capabilities over the Internet. EIS products combine software, data acquisition hardware, and communication systems to collect, analyze and display building information to aid commercial building energy managers, facility managers, financial managers and electric utilities in reducing energy use and costs in buildings. Data types commonly processed by EIS include energy consumption data; building characteristics; building system data, such as heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) and lighting data; weather data; energy price signals; and energy demand-response event information. This project involved an extensive review of research and trade literature to understand the motivation for EIS technology development. This study also gathered information on currently commercialized EIS. This review is not an exhaustive analysis of all EIS products; rather, it is a technical framework and review of current products on the market. This report summarizes key features available in today's EIS, along with a categorization framework to understand the relationship between EIS, Energy Management and Control Systems (EMCSs), and similar technologies. Four EIS types are described: Basic Energy Information Systems (Basic-EIS); Demand Response Systems (DRS); Enterprise Energy Management (EEM); and Web-based Energy Management and Control Systems (Web-EMCS). Within the context of these four categories, the following characteristics of EIS are discussed: Metering and Connectivity; Visualization and Analysis Features; Demand Response Features; and Remote Control Features. This report also describes the following technologies and the potential benefits of incorporating them into future EIS products: Benchmarking; Load Shape Analysis; Fault Detection and Diagnostics; and Savings Analysis.

Agricultural Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions in Ireland are projected to increase up to 21 Mt CO2eq by 2030 mainly driven by increased dairy cow numbers and increased nitrogen fertiliser use. In response to the growing public awareness of the GHG emissions' environmental impact, the Irish government published the Climate Action Plan in 2019, which identifies the agricultural sector's leading role in reducing GHG emission and increasing carbon removals to achieve the national GHG emission targets by 2030. Marginal Abatement Cost Curves (MACCs) on Irish GHG emissions have projected the total technically feasible mitigation potential for the Irish agriculture, forestry and land use (AFOLU) sector to be sufficient enough to achieve the set targets by 2030. Although these mitigation measures are available and when implemented, would mostly lead to a win-win situation, the voluntary adaptation rate by farmers is low. This study addresses the most significant determinants of voluntary adoption of mitigation measures by systematically examining existing literature on how and to what extent non-price determinants affectthe voluntary adoption rate of technically feasible mitigation measures in the Irish afolu sector. The main identified nonprice determining factors were the degree of farmers' awareness regarding man-made GHG emissions, receiving agrienvironmental advice, implementation costs, profitability and size of farms, land quality and the type of farm enterprise. Integrating the gained results in the former macc analysis enabled us to adopt the implementation rates of the cost-efficient afolu mitigation measures accordingly. The non-price determinants impact the voluntary uptake rate of AFOLU mitigation measures to the extent that the adjusted total Irish AFOLU abatement potential is 47% lower than technically feasible. Considering that 51.6% of the total estimated AFOLU abatement potential in 2030 is offset through Irish forestry, which at current afforestation rate will turn into a net carbon source by 2035, a significant gap occurs to any potential Irish and EU GHG reduction targets. To substantially help bring the nexus between agricultural development and GHG emission targets in Ireland closer together, policy measures, that differentiate between the different type of AFOLU mitigation measures, need to be implemented to enhance the uptake rate of cost-beneficial and cost-effective measures. This would have the potential to reduce the level of agricultural GHG emissions by 2030 in a way that it would converge towards possible EU and Irish GHG emission reduction targets.

The ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by most industrial nations will result in an international greenhouse emissions trading market by or before 2008. Calculating the quantity of embodied energy in commercial buildings has therefore taken on added significance because it is in the creation of energy that most greenhouse gas that causes global warming is released. For energy efficient commercial buildings in Australia, the embodied energy can typically represent between 10 and 20 years of operational energy. When greenhouse emissions trading is introduced in Australia the cost of energy will rise significantly, particularly electricity which relies primarily on burning fossil fuels for generation. This will affect not only the operating energy costs of buildings (light, power & heating/cooling) but also the cost of building materials and construction. Early estimates of the potential cost of future greenhouse emission permits in Australia vary between $IO/tonne to $180Itonne. This cost would be imposed primarily on the producers of energy and passed on by them to consumers via higher energy costs. For a typical commercial building this could lead to an increase in the total procurement cost of buildings of up to 20% due to the energy embodied during the construction or refurbishment of the building. To assist in evaluating these potential cost increases McKean & Park, Sinclair Knight Merz and Deakin University have developed a web-based Carbon Cost Calculator for commercial buildings.

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems of commercial and institutional buildings consume a large proportion of the energy used worldwide and, as a result, are a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and operational expenses. According to Wang et al. (2021), HVAC systems in commercial buildings account for approximately 40% of total energy consumption, making them a key focus in efforts to reduce energy use and emissions. As climate change and energy resource depletion intensify, increasing the energy efficiency of these buildings is viewed as a sustainable development solution. Improving building energy efficiency is considered one of the most effective strategies to mitigate global energy consumption and carbon footprints (Pérez-Lombard et al., 2008). This critical review re-anchors the current research, strategies, and case studies toward improving energy efficiency in existing commercial and institutional buildings, providing insights on which approaches work best, the challenges of implementation, and ways forward to guide future research and practice. The paper starts by outlining an overall view of the use of energy in commercial and institutional buildings and identifies the key energy-using systems, which include HVAC, lighting, and the building envelope (Mendell et al., 2017). Technological enhancements scientifically proven to reduce energy consumption include efficient HVAC systems, lighting systems, and advancements in insulation and window technologies (Kim et al., 2019). In addition, the utilization of renewable energy within existing building structures—such as solar and wind energy—is explored as a complementary option for reducing reliance on non-renewable energy sources (Hossain et al., 2020). Beyond technological improvements, behavioral change and policy measures play a critical role in improving energy efficiency. Studies have shown that occupant behavior significantly affects energy consumption, and energy management practices, coupled with incentives, can lead to measurable efficiency gains (Delzendeh et al., 2017). Energy performance standards and governmental incentives are essential in fostering greater efficiency in building systems (Ürge-Vorsatz et al., 2012). The review also addresses the challenges of retrofitting, particularly the high initial costs, operational disruptions, and legal constraints involved in upgrading existing buildings. These barriers, particularly in terms of cost and logistics, are critical to overcome if retrofitting is to be widely adopted (Ma et al., 2012). Case studies such as the Empire State Building's retrofitting project, which resulted in a projected 38% energy savings, and Harvard University's energy efficiency initiatives, demonstrate the real-world feasibility of significant energy reductions (Guldmann et al., 2020). It is particularly relevant to stress here that more innovation is required in the sphere of energy-efficient technologies, backed by stronger policy support, education, and collaboration among stakeholders. As noted by Sartori et al. (2012), the collaboration between governments, industry, and academia is essential to address the global challenge of increasing the energy efficiency of buildings and reducing energy consumption in response to climate change.

Nearly zero energy buildings (nZEBs) have been defined and standardised for certain developed countries. Most developing countries in the North Africa region lack building energy efficiency standards for their hot environments. With increased pressure on buildings to improve their energy and environmental performance, nZEB buildings are likely to gain popularity over the next few years. Their application in the MENA area can significantly reduce building energy consumption and CO2 emissions. As a result, it is critical to maximise both the energy use intensity (EUI) and the energy cost of a building through Building Information Modelling (BIM) technology for energy analysis. Therefore, this study aims to develop an energy-efficient building by evaluating several design options in terms of EUI and energy cost following ASHRAE 90.1 and Architecture 2030 standards. The baseline scenario’s energy consumption intensity was estimated at 400 kWh/m2/year. ASHRAE 90.1 standards’ adoption has the potential to save 40% of energy demand. The most energy-efficient architecture was identified to be Architecture 2030 with PV integration (92% of energy savings compared to the baseline scenario). In terms of energy costs, 28.5 $/m2/year was estimated to satisfy energy demand under the baseline scenario, 11.2 $/m2/year under ASHRAE standards, and a 3.83 $/m2/year payoff considering Architecture 2030.

The National Electric Energy Agency (ANEEL) of Brazil, in a bid to encourage energy-conscious energy consumption, has proposed a new sustainable energy tariff modality (the White Tariff) based on off-peak usage. This study aims to compare and contrast situations in which the White Tariff alone is used, and where it is combined with power generation from a generator set or a photovoltaic cell energy system to reduce energy costs. Furthermore, economic, environmental, and social advantages are outlined in the project summaries. Interviews and documentary analyses were conducted in a technology park that uses only the White Tariff and in condominiums that combine the White Tariff with a generator set or a photovoltaic cell system. The data generated was fed into the database of the Horosazonal software to obtain an overview of these companies. Results show that the company adopting the White Tariff alone achieved 19% and US$14,684 in annual savings. However, when the White Tariff is combined with a generator set, the smart grid project proved to be more efficient over time as it obtained an annual benefit of US$35,832 and 62.38% savings. In contrast, the smart grid project combining a photovoltaic cell energy system with the White Tariff achieved an annual benefit of US$52,712, with 68.31% savings and was 1.3 to 5.3 times more profitable than other projects, demonstrating that it was the best smart grip project studied. Furthermore, opting for the White Tariff produced advantages such as a reduction in energy consumption expenses, contributing to a reduction in power outages and blackouts, reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and boosting the company image within society. This study shows that energy-conscious consumption combined with the use of renewable energy sources is environmentally and economically advantageous and can provide future generations with a healthier environment in which people can make use of natural resources in a sustainable manner that is sustainable for planet earth.

Marginal abatement cost curves for policy recommendation – A method for energy system analysis

Energy use and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in rainfed canola production in north eastern Iran were analyzed to find measures to reduce energy use and GHG emissions. Four production scenarios, i.e. a high-input, a low-input, a better crop management and a usual scenario, evaluated. All activities and production processes were monitored and recorded over three consecutive years. The usual scenario consumed 13 GJ ha -1 energy input, resulted in 52 GJ ha -1 energy output and GHG emissions of 1028 kg CO2-eq ha -1 and 556 kg CO2-eq t -1 . The key factors relating to energy use and GHG emissions were nitrogen fertilizer and fuel for field operations. Compared to the usual production scenario, the better crop management production scenario was significantly more efficient; it consumed 25% less input energy, needed 17% lower amount of nitrogen fertilizer, but resulted in 35% more grain yield and output energy. This scenario also resulted in 26% less GHG emissions per unit field area and 45% less GHG emissions per ton of grain. Measures of improvement in energy use and GHG emission were identified.

There is significant potential for reducing energy use and emissions from buildings through energy efficiency retrofits. However, a number of barriers, including long payback periods and uncertainties around business models and technologies, restrict large scale implementation. A recent joint project, piloting green energy schemes and low-carbon investments in public and commercial buildings in the Changning district of Shanghai, China, indicated opportunities to break through these barriers. This study conducted a cost benefit analysis to investigate how an innovative combination of financial and non-financial supported retrofits, and could serve as a model for other urban areas. In total, 44 retrofit sub-projects were carried out and achieved energy savings of 30,217 tons of coal equivalent. The average payback period was 2.43 years, and with subsidies was further reduced to 1.79 years. The Changning Low Carbon Office played a critical role in coordinating and supporting the uptake of retrofit measures but non-economic factors continue to restrict investment by financial institutions and the implementation of retrofits on a larger scale. Key policy insights Public and commercial building retrofits in Shanghai are found to generate commercially acceptable payback periods while having achieved significant energy and emissions reductions. Subsidies from the city and district governments significantly reduced the payback periods of energy efficiency retrofits, but may also crowd out investment by financial institutions. The Changning Low Carbon Office has coordinated energy efficiency retrofitting efforts, provided access to information, helped to connect investment funds with project opportunities and support project management. Achieving the deeper retrofits needed to achieve China’s climate targets may require more substantial financial incentives.

Estimating energy costs and greenhouse gas emissions efficiency in the provision of domestic water: An empirical application for England and wales