Energy and Air Pollutants in Belgium: The Contribution of Automotive Traffic since 1980

Engine emissions with air pollutants and greenhouse gases and their control technologies

Urban residential energy switching in China between 1980 and 2014 prevents 2.2 million premature deaths

Three main categories of pollutant emissions into the atmosphere from Croatian oil and natural gas activities are: fuel combustion, fugitive and carbon dioxide separated from natural gas. The pollutants (or pollutant classes) emitted into the air are: main greenhouse gases such as CO2, CH4; indirect greenhouse gases such as NOx, CO and NMVOC gases (with no direct greenhouse effect, but they influence generation and disintegration of tropospheric and stratospheric ozon who has properties of a greenhouse gases); suspended particulate matter (SPM) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). These pollutants are emitted into the air during normal well operations, production, processing and distribution of gas and oil products. SNAP94 for CORINAIR inventory three level hierarchical emission source nomenclatures (covers 4 main sectors, 9 sub-sectors and 33 activities) has been used to characterise the cause of the emissions and to relate it to anthropogenic activity in petroleum industry. Point, line and area sources of air pollution in petroleum industry are considered. Emission estimations are based on detailed activity/technology information covering stationary sources. IPCC simplified method (Tier 1-production based average emission factor approach) for estimating CO2 non-CO2 greenhouse gases emissions, based on activity level and average emission factors, has been used. EMEP/CORINAIR detailed method (mass balance approach) to estimate fugitive emissions of ozone precursors (NOx, CO and NMVOC) from oil and natural gas activities has been also used. Comparison (in graph form) between emissions of air pollutants from INA- Petroleum Industry and emissions in Croatia has been made. Introduction Three main categories of pollutant emissions into the atmosphere from INA Croatian petroleum industry are: fuel combustion, fugitive emissions and emissions of carbon dioxide removed from natural gas. Fuel combustion result in emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), and non-CO2 emissions such as emissions of methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), nonmethane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Result of fugitive emissions are emissions of methane from oil and natural gas activities, emissions of ozone percursors (CO, NOx, NMVOC) and emission of SO2 from oil refining. Removal of CO2 by amine scrubbing result in subseqent emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere. The emissions of these polutants influence the air quality on local, regional and global level. Local level: Emissions of NOx, SO2, (fines) suspended particulate matter (SPM), heavy metals (HM), such as Pb, Hg, Cd, As, Ni and smoke from emission sources (stationary fuel combustion, oil refining) at petroleum refineries contribute to air quality in the urban areas where refineries are located (Rijeka, Sisak). Today, ground level concentrations of SO2 and soot at the sources at petrolum rafineries primarily due to combustion of gas instead of liquid fuel has been decreased to degree that the air quality at this urban areas belongs to first category. Regional level: Emissions from petroleum industry contribute to the problems on regional level, such as acid rains (SO2, NOx), eutrophication (NOx), high concentrations of tropospheric ozon (NOx), and pollutions with heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POP) such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and dioxin. According to data, emissions of SO2, NOx from refineries (Sisak, Rijeka) contribute with 8 percent to total emissions of SO2, NOx from liquid fuels in Croatia (1).

In many parts of the world, shipping-related emissions have already exceeded or are expected to soon exceed those from land-based sources. Shipping emissions can be reduced substantially by using some of the same technologies being applied to land-based sources, including cleaner engines and fuels, exhaust control methods, and operational modifications. Various ports are testing the feasibility of these mechanisms with varying degrees of success. What is perhaps most greatly needed is expedited creation of better regulations at all levels, from the International Maritime Organization to port city authorities.

Temporal and spatial trends of residential energy consumption and air pollutant emissions in China

TOTAL Abu Al Bukhoosh (TABK) is an offshore Oil and Gas facility producing an average of 100 000 boepd. This activity is inevitably associated with environmental impacts and in particular with atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). Fully adhering to international strive to curb GHG emission, TABK has implemented innovative solutions by equipping all its air pollution emission sources (flares, power generation turbines and gas compression turbines) with Predictive Emissions Monitoring Systems (PEMS). PEMS are software based continuous monitoring systems that are using process data such as, but not limited to, fuel consumption, power output, combustion exhaust temperature, etc to predict air pollutant emissions. PEMS models were designed, tested, and certified in compliance with current best international practices and now allows TABK to continuously quantify the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) on its offshore facility. Results indicate that atmospheric emissions have a direct correlation with operation of the emission source; load, firing temperature, fuel flow and quality. Calibrated emissions models utilize measurements from existing instruments already available in the site control system (DCS) and calculate, display, trend and report the emissions of NOx, CO, O2, SO2, CO2. PEMS reporting solution was granted approval by ADNOC, the local regulator, and is recognized as being a Best Available Technique for UAE Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control emissions compliance reporting. Furthermore, this continuous quantification of the main air pollutant emissions can now support adequate modeling and assessment that enables accurate air quality forecasting and can support any development of cost-effective abatement philosophy and strategy with clear and precise scientific information.

Roles of pollution in the prevalence and exacerbations of allergic diseases in Asia

Currently, Tangshan confronts the dual challenge of elevated carbon emissions and substantial pollution discharge from the iron and steel industries (ISIs). While significant efforts have been made to mitigate air pollutants and carbon emissions within the ISIs, there remains a gap in comprehending the control of carbon emissions, air pollutant emissions, and their contributions to air pollutant concentrations at the enterprise level. In this study, we devised the Air Pollutant and Carbon Emission and Air Quality (ACEA) model to identify enterprises with noteworthy air pollution and carbon emissions, as well as substantial contributions to air pollutant concentrations. We constructed a detailed inventory of air pollutants and CO2 emissions from the iron and steel industry in Tangshan for the year 2019. The findings reveal that in 2019, Tangshan emitted 5.75 × 104 t of SO2, 13.47 × 104 t of NOx, 3.55 × 104 t of PM10, 1.80 × 104 t of PM2.5, 5.79 × 106 t of CO and 219.62 Mt of CO2. The ACEA model effectively pinpointed key links between ISI enterprises emitting air pollutants and carbon dioxide, notably in pre-iron-making processes (coking, sintering, pelletizing) and the Blast furnace. By utilizing the developed air pollutant emission inventory, the CALPUFF model assessed the impact of ISI enterprises on air quality in the Tangshan region. Subsequently, we graded the performance of air pollutant and CO2 emissions following established criteria. The ACEA model successfully identified eight enterprises with significant air pollution and carbon emissions, exerting notable influence on air pollutant concentrations. Furthermore, the ACEA outcomes offer the potential for enhancing regional air quality in Tangshan and provide a scientific instrument for mitigating air pollutants and carbon emissions. The effective application of the ACEA model in Tangshan’s steel industry holds promise for supporting carbon reduction initiatives and elevating environmental standards in other industrial cities across China.

Air pollution, both indoors and outdoors, is a major environmental health problem affecting everyone in developed and developing countries alike. Any agent that spoils air quality is called air pollutant. Air pollution can be defined as the presence of pollutants,such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), particle substances (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and ozone (O3) in the air that we inhale at levels which can create some negative effects on the environment and human health (Bayram, 2006). Air pollutants have sources that are both natural and human-based. Now, humans contribute substantially more to the air pollution problem. Though some pollution comes from natural sources, most pollution is the result of human activity. Air pollution is a problem of growing importance. This pollution damages the natural processes in the atmosphere, and affects public health negatively. Currently, several cities stand out as worst cases of air pollution (Kilburn,1992). It was found that until the 1980s, 1.3 billion people lived in cities where pollution was above the air quality standards (Bayram, 2006). Besides, air pollution is a main threat to the vegetation. Pollutants such as dust, soot, fog, steam, ash, smoke, etc. are introduced into air naturally and as a result of human activities. The athmosphere can neutralize toxic solid, liquid and gaseous substances by melting them; however, due to the production of excessive amounts of such substances and depending on the meteorological and topographic conditions, the atmosphere is in a continuous process of pollution. (Kaypak and Ozdilek,2008). There are several main types of pollution. Among the main pollutants in the urban atmosphere are primarily the particle substances (PM), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and secondarily ozone (O3) that is created as a result of photochemical reactions. (Ozden et all.,2008). Particles are introduced into the air by burning fuel for energy. The gases produced as a result of burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries are a major source of pollution in the air. The exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a major source of pollution in the air. Some believe that even the burning of wood and charcoal in fireplaces and barbeques can release significant quanitites of soot into the air. Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. These can take part in further chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere, forming smog and acid rain (URL4). Air pollution was first seen in Turkey as a serious problem in the early 1970s, and in the following years it spread into other cities mainly Istanbul. The reason for this is that lignite

The primary driver of atmospheric pollution is humanity's demand for energy. Consequently, traffic and industry—particularly the energy sector—are considered the dominant sources of air pollution. Intensive motorized traffic significantly contributes to increased vehicular emissions, negatively impacting the atmosphere and all the environment. A range of negative effects of air pollution is observed, particularly in the urban environment, where one of the most considerable is the impact on human health. Air pollution affects all living organisms, leading to various health issues, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, allergic reactions, and even death. Due to urbanization, the prevalence of respiratory conditions, such as allergic asthma, chronic obstructive bronchitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, is increasing. Literature data shows that the emission of air pollutants (e.g. particulate matter, sulfur or nitrogen oxides) in developing countries, like Serbia, is higher than in industrialized ones. The study deals with the analysis of the health data and air pollutants emission data related to the energy sector and road traffic in Serbia, establishing the dynamic change trend in the period 2012-2022. Trend change dynamics were followed for the main air pollutants like black carbon, particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, ammonia, and non-methane volatile organic compounds. The analysis showed the positive trend changes in the dominant air pollutants emission relevant for the observed industry sectors, during the 11 years. The emission rate of NO<sub>2</sub> from road transport in the period 2012 - 2022 shows a positive trend of change, and the share of NO<sub>2</sub> in total emission increased from 19.87% to 41.06%. Also, share of black carbon and various particulate matter in total national emission increased. Regarding the coal-power plant as a dominant energy source and a primary source of SO<sub>2</sub> emissions in Serbia, its emission rate fluctuated during the observed period. Nevertheless, its contribution to the total national emissions increased from 90.30% in 2012 to 95.56% in 2022. Regarding the results, future monitoring of the air pollutants emission level and implementing measures to improve the air quality in Serbia should be of high importance. Therefore, investment towards green transition and traffic planning, including the number and types of vehicles within urban areas, as a critical factor in mitigating air pollution levels, should be a priority. Furthermore, policies related to reducing air pollution emission from diverse sources should be harmonized with the European Union's regulatory framework to ensure alignment with empirical outcomes.

Cambodia's 16.5 million people are exposed to air pollution in excess of World Health Organisation guidelines. The Royal Government of Cambodia has regulated air pollutant emissions and concentrations since 2000, but rapid economic growth and energy consumption means air pollution continues to impact human health. In December 2021, the Ministry of Environment of Cambodia published Cambodia's first Clean Air Plan that outlines actions to reduce air pollutant emissions over the next decade. This work presents the quantitative air pollution mitigation assessment underpinning the identification and evaluation of measures included in Cambodia's Clean Air Plan. Historic emissions of particulate matter (PM2.5, black carbon, organic carbon) and gaseous (nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, sulphur dioxide, ammonia, and carbon monoxide) air pollutants are quantified between 2010 and 2015, and projected to 2030 for a baseline scenario. Mitigation scenarios reflecting implementation of 14 measures included in Cambodia's Clean Air Plan were modelled, to quantify the national reduction in emissions, from which the reduction in ambient PM2.5 exposure and attributable health burdens were estimated. In 2015, the residential, transport, and waste sectors contribute the largest fraction of national total air pollutant emissions. Without emission reduction measures, air pollutant emissions could increase by between 50 and 150% in 2030 compared to 2015 levels, predominantly due to increases in transport emissions. The implementation of the 14 mitigation measures could substantially reduce emissions of all air pollutants, by between 60 and 80% in 2030 compared to the baseline. This reduction in emissions was estimated to avoid approximately 900 (95% C.I.: 530–1200) premature deaths per year in 2030 compared to the baseline scenario. In addition to improving air pollution and public health, Cambodia's Clean Air Plan could also to lead to additional benefits, including a 19% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, simultaneously contributing to Cambodia's climate change goals.

The combination of carbon footprint and urban transportation planning is significantly meaningful to the construction of urban low-carbon transportation. This dissertation studies the emission of carbon dioxide and air pollutant such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, nitrogen oxide during the process of transportation, and establishes carbon footprint measurement model to calculate the urban transportation planning projects' emission of carbon dioxide and air pollutant. Then based on the Geographic Information System Developer's Kit (GISDK) development platform and carbon footprint measurement model, secondary development is made in TransCAD to enable the software to calculate the emission of carbon dioxide and air pollutant. The developed software is used to evaluate the carbon footprint of three different urban transportation planning projects of Eco High Tech Island in Nanjing, China and then the most environmentally friendly is chosen to meet the need of developing a low-carbon city.

Vehicle mix evaluation in Beijing's passenger-car sector: From air pollution control perspective

The urban transport sector is one of most significant contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollutant (AP) emissions. To achieve co-benefits of GHG and AP emission reductions, a synergistic mitigation approach targeting both climate change and air pollution has gained more attention. In this study, we evaluate mitigation synergy and policy implications for GHGs and nine APs, namely, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matters (PM10 and PM2.5), black carbon (BC), organic carbon (OC), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and ammonia (NH3), in the transport sector of Xiamen, China, during the 2013–2060 period using the Low Emissions Analysis Platform model and quantitative analysis methods. Results show that light-duty vehicles, river boats, buses and heavy-duty trucks are significant common sources of GHG and AP emissions. Road sector abatement during 2013–2020 was most prominent, especially for CO, NO X , VOCs and GHGs. In this sector, guide green travel (GGT) and adjust energy structure (AES) are dominant measures for mitigation synergy between GHGs and APs. From 2021 to 2060, emission pathways for GHGs, SO2, CO, VOCs and NH3 under optimize transport structure (OTS), AES and GGT scenarios will decrease markedly. Their emissions will peak soon relative to those under business as usual scenario. Additionally, the potential of mitigation synergy may mainly be attributed to the road and shipping sectors under AES scenario, which is the most effective in reducing PM10, PM2.5, BC and OC emissions; the mitigation potential under the AES scenario for GHGs and other APs is nearly 1–4 times as high as that under OTS and GGT scenarios. Therefore, mitigation synergy, especially in adjusting the energy structure for the transport sector, is essential for achieving the simultaneous goals of the ‘blue sky’ and ‘carbon peaking and neutrality’.

The sectoral trends of multigas emissions inventory of India