Emotional Language in Alcipron’s Letters

The main subject of this article is red-figure pottery from Ainos (Enez) in eastern Thrace from the late 6th century to the late 5th century BC. The material comes from the fill layers of the necropolis and a limited number of grave contexts as well as from the ancient acropolis, which is known today as the Medieval Castle. Ainos was a member of the Delian League and an ally of Athens in the 5th century BC. Available finds indicate that Athenian red figure pottery was being imported throughout the 5th century BC. The identified painters, shapes and subjects on the vases show parallelism with Athens. Calyx and bell crater, skyphos and cups are the most represented shapes. The earliest red figure pottery can be attributed to the Pioneer Group. However, the finds from the timespan between 500 to 480 BC constitute 4% of all the sherds. Available finds indicate that red figure and black figure pottery were in use simultaneously until the middle of the 5th century BC. In the second half of the 5th century, red figure shows an obvious increase. In contrast to some settlements in western Asia Minor, Ainos continued to import Athenian red figure pottery through the course of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. The city’s location on important trade routes between the North Aegean and the Black Sea and its large hinterland must have contributed to this situation. A remarkable increase in the quantity of red figure pottery in Ainos can be detected at the end of the 5th century BC in parallel with the trade boom between the Black Sea ports and Athens. Among the various subjects depicted on the vases, Dionysos and related scenes are popular from the beginning until the end of the 5th century BC. Also, scenes from women’s daily life, komos, soldiers’ farewells and sacrificial offerings are identified. Context graves in limited availability give us information about the intended purpose of the red figure pottery in Ainos. Accordingly, pelikai and hydriai were used as urns for cremation graves and lekythoi were used as grave goods. Although the examples of local productions in black figure technique from the late 6th and 5th century BC were identified in Ainos, available examples of red figure pottery from this period show the features of the Athenian clay, glaze and the painting style. The finds, which differ from Athenian imports, can be classified as belonging to the 4th century BC. On the other hand, the earliest examples of the local red figure pottery in Mainland Greece can be traced to the second half of the 5th century BC.

SUMMARY “Yuan Dao” the dao body mainly for the ontology elaboration, the natural elaboration, the essential elaboration, is a multi-dimensional combination theory system.Its content: （1） has characteristic of the nature.（2） includes the strong humanities.（3） emphasis classics and sage's function.4, advocated can pass the standpoint which changes suitably. The meaning of dao essence theory has an effect in the creation of rhetoric using and is primarily based upon the quality of nature, the quality of authoritativeuidance, and the principle of change. Furthermore, he does not separate literary genre and dao essence theory, but combines both concepts, to allow dao essence theory to be placed into the writing of literary genre. This allows the author’s feeling and aspirations to congeal with the essence of literary genre and conform with the natural principle of creativity. The origin of each literary genre is interrelated with the Five Classics, allowing the use of literary genre to conform with the Classics.Last is the rhetorical conception of literary genre and form, which must undergo the author’s change of literary diction to complete. INTRODUCTION “Yuan Dao” in Wenxin diaolong (Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons) is an important metaphysical concept in Liu Xie’s theoretical and interpretive process, thus acting as a core for the support of theoretical structures. This metaphysical concept allows his literary theory to be investigated more deeply. Liu absorbed previous the results of previous philosophical thinking and mastered them through comprehensive study—to then create a theory of dao essence and system of self. The meaning of dao essence theory is not merely a metaphysical concept of philosophy, for it possesses in the entirety of literary theory an original principle. Even though it is used as rhetoric in writing, it still has its function. MATERIALS AND METHODS Through greater textual exploration and analysis, it can be seen that Liu Xie’s dao essence theory does not only deliberate on the “yuan dao” chapter, but in fact, the chapters pertaining to the origin of wen such as “yuan dao,” “zheng sheng,” “zong jing,” “zheng wei,” and “bian sao,” all act to construct important chapters of his dao essence theory; only by a comprehensive analysis can we understand the dao essence theory in its entirety. Liu Xie absorbed previous the results of previous philosophical thinking and mastered them through comprehensive study—to then create a theory of dao essence and system of self. His dao essence theory, primarily elucidates the question of being, which is interrelated with Wang Bi’s philosophical thinking. As a figure living in the turbulent Six Dynasties Era, Liu Xie the universally accepted discourse on the natural, of which is one of the characteristics of the dao essence concept. By understanding dao essence in Wenxin diaolong, we can master its substance, which continues the cognitive traditions of Dong Zhongshu philosophical thinking, Yi zhuan, as well as Ruan Ji’s Heaven and Humanity relationship. From these points of analysis, we can be sure that Liu Xie’s dao essence theory is a theoretical system of diverse synthesis and is not limited to any school or system of thought. This is what we need to master the literature. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The meaning of dao essence theory has an effect in the creation of rhetoric using and is primarily based upon the quality of nature, the quality of authoritative guidance, and the principle of change. The principle of nature points to a creative method and position based on “acting on the external from the internal” (you nei er wai), “writing from the mind” (wei wen yong xin), “confluence of feeling and essence” (qing zhi xiangfu). This position conforms with the patterns of the dao essence theory and is an unchanging principle in the creative process. Thus, the use of rhetoric in the creative process must be in accordance with this position, to then not violate the dao essence. On the other hand, it may be changed into an overly ornate and decorated style that was criticized by Liu Xie. The use of rhetoric is also regulated by authoritative guidance. This authoritative guidance is, simply put, the classics; it can be termed the spirit of zong jing (“Elevating the Classics”). The authority of Zong jing exists as a model of classics. It is the paragon of natural writing that is exemplified as “to speak the mind and speak through literature” (dao xin er dao wen). Through the function of human culture, it gains status in its original meaning. Classics act as the fountainhead of literary genre. It is also the origin of creativition, which makes it necessary for the function of rhetoric to reach back logically into the source of the classics. The principle of change points to the necessary tendencies toward development in literature. Fixed and unchanged, literature will remain stagnant, and thus the way of literature will fail to epitomize the way of the mind. “Zheng wei” and “Qu sao” precisely echo this type of positioning in chapter and topic. In emphasizing the natural way and the authority of the classics, it magnifies the rationalizing and necessity of changing diction, to then allow writing to continue acclimating to different periods, authors, and topics. CONCLUSION Liu Xie contemplates deeply in his investigation of literary genre. In this process, he arranges specific writing methods and rhetoric usage. Furthermore, he does not separate literary genre and dao essence theory, but combines both concepts, to allow dao essence theory to be placed into the writing of literary genre. From this, he constructs his theoretical framework. The driving principle of literary genre is in its construction process, which follows the pattern of creating literature through true feeling. This allows the author’s feeling and aspirations to congeal with the essence of literary genre and conform with the natural principle of creativity. The origin of each literary genre is interrelated with the Five Classics, allowing the use of literary genre to conform with the Classics. Here, there are six series of literary genres, which can be categorized as a combination of the Five Classics and Chu ci as origins, and match both literary diction style. Last is the rhetorical conception of literary genre and form, which must undergo the author’s change of literary diction to complete. This allows the expressive forms to possess different possibilities. Furthermore, in regards to the usage of literary diction in literary genres, no matter what genre, its diction will still need to follow models of the natural principle, elevation of the Classics, and the principle of change. Creative rhetoric perpetually needs a kind of method that reaches out externally from an internal source, to then conform with the language of the author’s emotions and breadth of mind. Any creation must still return to the source of wen—Classics, and the allusion to ancient times as the method of writing. Liu Xie follows this method and arranges the Six Meanings of the Elevated Classics for later generations, to become a functional principle for any creative rhetoric. Furthermore, the individual, groups, and generations are all factors that influence creativity. The author’s personal talent, feeling, learning, habits, and the period in which he lived all become the creative impetus of the author. In addition, it is the fountainhead in which he acts internally on the external, as well as write from true emotion. This will naturally give his expression a rich and diverse literary style, which makes changing creative rhetoric absolutely necessary. Since this congeals with the positions of the elevation of the Classics, the essence of literary genre, as well as historical tradition, creativity will then need to regulate and adapt to change.

The article is devoted to characterizing bridle plaques with zoomorphic and anthropomorphic images, which were used by the nomads of the Southern Urals in the 6th – 4th centuries BC. The paper presents a summary of these horse ammunition items, which includes about 80 finds. The author proposes a typology of these subjects. Types of bridle plaques are distinguished by a combination of features that characterize the plot, composition and style of images. The items are represented by various types of plaques in the form of predatory and hoofed animals, birds, several species of animals or their parts, fish, and a rider on a horse. All the plaques are divided into four chronological groups in accordance with currently accepted dates of the monuments, where they were found: the late 6th – the early 5th century BC, the late 6th – the 5th century BC, the late 5th – the 4th century BC, the late 6th – the 4th century BC. Thus, nomads used plaques with zoomorphic images throughout the period under consideration. The distribution of types of plaques with zoomorphic images on chronological groups demonstrates both continuity in the nomads’ culture development throughout the 6th – 4th centuries BC and cultural transformations that occurred during this period. The transformations are reflected in changing nomenclature in the category of horse ammunition, style of zoomorphic images (including due to the appearance of plaques indicating links with the Don region, the North Caucasus, and the North Pontic region), and emergence of a tradition to use plaques with anthropomorphic images.

The goal of this research is to discover how rhetorical devices could be analysed semantically in some selected texts of Dickens’s ‘A Tale of Two Cities’. The data were collected from the novel. The researcher utilized a descriptive qualitative method to describe and investigate the rhetorical devices in this literary genre. Rhetorical devices are defined as a means of increasing the language's richness, diversity, clarity, power, and impact (Chetia 2015). Several semantic concepts and theories have been used to analyze rhetorical devices. These semantic theories and concepts include Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980), Kovecses’ (2010) and Saeed’s (2015) metaphor and metonymy, Cruse’s (2000) semantic anomaly, lexical relations such as synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy; and reference, sense, denotation and connotation. It is hypothesized that the meaning in rhetorical devices can be better manifested semantically. Consequently, the research discovered several well-known types of rhetorical devices in the novel such as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, antithesis, personification, repetition, and pun that can be analysed in the following semantic theories. This is because, in metaphor, the target domain could be understood through the source domain, whereas in metonymy, the target could be comprehended via the vehicle. Also, synecdoche was analysed via lexical relations where the part was hyponymy and the whole was superordinate; however, repetition was linked to reference, referent, and sense. Nonetheless, repetition, personification, and antithesis were analysed in terms of contradiction and semantic anomaly, while pun could be analysed in terms of polysemy and homonymy within lexical relations.

The article analyzes Aristotle’s testimony of a possible continuity between the teachings of Hermotimus of Clazomenae and his compatriot Anaxagoras. This testimony will remain the only one among the later ancient reports concerning Hermotimus, representing him more as a wizard and a seer than a philosopher. In this way, his image is presented until the 19th century; Hegel, Zeller, Windelband and others showed undisguised skepticism towards this figure. The state of affairs began to change at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries, when the irrational aspects of ancient thought started to attract researchers. Rohde draws attention to the profound transformation of ideas about the soul in the 7th – 6th centuries BC, when the soul started to be perceived as existing separately from the body, as a special substance not reducible to the latter. E. Dodds discovers the origins of this new concept in the northern countries that opened up to the Greek world due to the colonization of the Black Sea coast and enriched the culture of Hellas with elements of «shamanism». The ability to experience the separation of soul and body was a hallmark of magicians and seers of a special kind that appeared in the 7th – 6th centuries BC — Abaris, Aristaes, Epimenides, and others. Rohde considers Hermotimus to be the most notable example of such a magician. It was from his personal experience that Hermotimus could draw a conclusion about the irreducibility of matter and spirit to each other, and, as a consequence, of the separateness of Mind as a universal principle. The distinction between spirit (soul) and matter (body) will become the fundamental principle of Greek philosophy; the concept of Mind (Nous) will serve as the foundation for the system of Anaxagoras, the first Athenian philosopher, from whom, in fact, the history of classical Greek philosophy begins.

The Lagina Hekate Sanctuary was finalized with reconstruction activities in the Late Hellenistic and Early Imperial period. The four sides of the sanctuary were surrounded by stoas in the Doric style built during the Early Imperial period. At a point near the center is the temple and there is an altar located south-east of the temple. As a result of ongoing work in the sacred precinct, the evidence shows that the Temple and cult of Hekate dated back to the 4th century BC. The aim of this study is to determine how old the sanctuary and cult of Hekate in Lagina is based on the archaeological and epigraphical data. The peribolos, which were found in the northeastern part of the sanctuary and were later discovered to have surrounded four sides of the sanctuary, are architecturally the most important proof that they date back to the 4th century BC. The walls are flat-edged, with a pulvinated surface and built as a double row of pitch-faced stones and rectangular blocks. This masonry technique is also found in Stratonikeia Lower City Walls, the repair phases in Kadıkulesi Hill on the western and northern walls and it has been dated back to the 4th century BC. In the context of Maussolos’ urbanization policy, construction activities have also been carried out in Lagina besides Stratonikeia. The data obtained from the naos of the altar have reinforced the opinion that there was a cult building there; especially the numerous coins dated to the 4th and 3rd centuries, the terracotta figurines dated to the Hellenistic period are the other archeological evidence showing that there was a cult building before the temple with Corinthian peristasis. Numerous inscriptions have been found in the sanctuary and most of the inscriptions have been dated to the Roman Imperial period. Three of the inscriptions on the sacred area have been dated to the 4th century BC and one of them has been dated to 197-166 BC. The contents of these inscriptions clearly demonstrate the presence of a sanctuary here and clearly proves that this area was devoted to Hekate. The fact that Stratonikeia was called Hekatesia (the city of Hekate) from 430 to 280 BC is another indication of the importance of Hekate in the region. The Hekate Cult must have already been very powerful in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC so that a magnificent temple could be built with Corinthian peristasis at the end of the 2nd century BC.

Drawing on recent Political Discourse Analysis (PDA) approaches that map text over relevant context as supported by Van Dijk (2006), in this research, it was tried to follow this research route. The main intention was to look at political discourse via the lenses of PDA to see whether ideologies and power relations of interlocutors in the target setting of this study could have possibly been aligned with linguistic elements-here rhetorical devices and to see to what extent such text-context mapping is recognized as relevant to language tools within the selected datasets. Accordingly, the researcher tried to follow a sample of political talk- live 2008 US presidential debates- among two Republic vs. Democratic campaigns. To do so, some political strategies for argumentation including Van Dijk’s model representing 'Authority', 'Topos or burden', 'Future Representations’, ‘Comparison', 'Consensus', 'Counterfactuals', 'populism’, 'generalizations', and 'number Games' were mapped over some linguistic rhetorical devices such as ‘metaphor’, ‘hyperbole’, ‘irony’, ‘euphemism’, etc. The common discoursal moves in Obama’s vs. McCain's speech statements were compared and contrasted among similar strategies to find any emergent rhetorical devices. Findings indicated that 1) the political candidates had made use of rhetorical and political moves in tandem within the same propositional units, 2) some employed discourse devices were paralleled with the majority of political strategies like repetition and metaphor, and 3) some political strategies had been used to excess like 'comparison’, 'populism' and 'future representation’ respectively.

Modern Dystopian Fiction and Political Thought: Narratives of World Politics

The article is devoted to the characteristics of the complex of horse equipment accessories used by the nomads of the Southern Urals in the second half of the 6th – 5th centuries BC. The Southern Ural region is defined as the flat territories adjacent to the Southern Urals in the west and east. This complex was identified as a result of the study of the co-occurrence of more than 700 harness items found in nomadic burials and on burial platforms beneath kurgans dating to the 7th – 4th centuries BC. To determine the nature of the connections (frequency of cooccurrence), the TYPE program was used, designed for the typology of objects of various categories. The article provides a list of elements (bits, cheek-pieces, decorations, and other bridle accessories, saddle set parts, etc.) of the complex and their brief descriptions. The existence of this complex, judging by imported items as well as by analogies from monuments studied in other regions of settlement of Eurasian nomads, falls on the period from the middle of the 6th century BC to the end of the 5th century BC, possibly the turn of the 5th – 4th centuries BC or the very beginning of the 4th century BC. By identifying the strongest mathematically determined correlation coefficients between the types of harness accessories in this complex, it could be divided into at least two groups, which are its structural “cores.” The first group can be dated back to the second half of the 6th to the beginning of the 5th century BC, while the second group belongs to the time within the 5th century BC and, possibly, the turn of the 5th – 4th centuries BC or the very beginning of the 4th century BC. In general, this complex has clearly expressed characteristics that significantly distinguish it from earlier and later horse harness traditions.

The new data that have become available in the last two decades show that the Scythian Kingdom with its capital in Neapolis Scythica, which existed in the Crimea in the 2nd century BC, was much closer to Hellenistic states ruled by barbarian dynasties than to nomadic kingdom of the Scythians of the 4th century BC. At the same time, these data allow us to return in part to the old view formulated by Rostovtzeff about continuity between the Scythia of the 4th century BC and the Late Scythian Kingdom, which most researchers have rejected during the last thirty years. It turned out that this continuity existed at least at the ideological level, and the excavations at Ak-Kaya (Vishennoe) filled the chronological gap between the Scythian Kingdoms of the 4th and 2nd century BC. Apparently, Ak-Kaya became one of the political centres of the Scythians as early as the late 4th century BC, before the fall of “Great Scythia”, and the capital of the Crimean Scythians was located there before it was moved to Neapolis Scythica. In the formation of Late Scythian culture and the Late Scythian Kingdom with its capital first in Ak-Kaya and then in Neapolis Scythica, apart from the Scythian elements, sedentary Tauri took part, as well as probably the Greeks and the Hellenized population of the chorai of the Greek cities in north-western Crimea. A key role in changing the character of Scythian culture was apparently played by a change in its economic-cultural type and the transition from nomadic pastoralism to settled agriculture. This article proposes a new interpretation of the inscription on the mausoleum of Argotas, discovered in Neapolis Scythica in 1999. Argotas was probably not a Scythian, but a Greek, despite his Scythian name. This Bosporan aristocrat with Scythian family ties married the widowed Bosporan queen Kamasarya in the second quarter of the 2nd century BC and is mentioned as her husband in the inscription CIRB 75. He played an important role in governing the Bosporan Kingdom and in protecting it against attacks from the East. Then, most likely after the death of Kamasarya, he moved to the neighbouring kingdom of the Scythians, where he became one of the leading generals, the right-hand man of the king and the tutor to his children. After his death in ca. 130-125 BC, he received from King Skiluros unprecedented honours – a heroon in front of the facade of the royal palace was erected for him and, moreover, this was the only truly Greek building in Neapolis Scythica: it was built in accordance with the rules of the architectural order and decorated with Greek statues and reliefs, as well as a metric epitaph with numerous Homeric forms and expressions.

Almost six decades after its discovery was initially announced, the Illyrian grave-pit from Kačanj is still one of the most important archaeological sites for the interpretation of the economic, ethnical and culural processes in the adriatic hiterland from the and oh 6th to 5th centuries BC. More the 11 people, women, children and warrior were buried with rich beloningsand offerings, which include illyrian bronze halmets, spears, knives, jewelry from silver, amber and imported drinking vessel sets. Amongst these, for subject of our research, is especially important find of cross shape belt-hook. These type of belt-hooks are distributed mainly in western part of Balkan Peninsula. Some of the earliest buckles known are those used by Iapodian population during the early iron age. In grave 51 at necropolis Otočac near Prozor came first find date at 7th century BC. Buckle from Duga Gora near Ogulin is some decades later then previosly. Finds from Liburnia beloning period from the and of 7th and mostly from 6th century BC, while belt-hooks from Dalmatian site Otišić is from the and of 6th century BC. Only find from central Balkan, area east Herzegovina, is from Kačanj. In this case, we can look cross shape belt-hook as artefact of foreign origin. There are two possibilities regarding the arrival of the artefact: it was either imported from area Dalmatia, or it arrived with the migration of new population from western part of Balkan. In any of these case cross shape belt buckle is buried with one of the first dead at grave-pit in Kačanj and date from the and of 6th or early 5th century BC.

The study of stone artifacts and their provenance is an important proxy for understanding the entangled relationship between humans and geological resources. In this paper, we explore the potentialities of an interdisciplinary approach combining in situ documentation of tool marks and characterization of stone types using a near infrared (NIR) portable probe. We argue that this protocol is useful for collecting screening data on objects that cannot be moved or sampled. NIR spectra describe textural and molecular features of the materials and can be used to achieve a preliminary characterization of raw materials. We present a case study from the territory of Montescaglioso (Basilicata, near Matera, Italy), where we combined the analysis of a calcarenite (limestone) quarry, in Masseria D’Alessio, which was exploited since the 6th century BC, as well as artifacts of the same chronology from surveys and excavations in the surroundings. The aim was to collect preliminary data about the distribution of the particular calcarenite extracted from the quarry and identify exploitation and trade patterns. The data were processed using multivariate statistics to highlight the relevant spectral information and perform supervised classification of spectral features. Documentation of tool marks and the process of stone working were combined with the spectral signature of the artifacts to link the stone types to the description of their extraction/carving methods.

Aim: To analyze the persuasion strategies used in the ad-vertising discourse of Croatian editions of Cosmopolitan and Elle magazines. To achieve this, we investigated the linguis-tic and rhetorical strategies of persuasion in women’s mag-azines and determined at which linguistic level they com-monly appear. Methods: We selected five issues of Cosmopolitan magazine and five issues of Elle magazine from which we extracted 133 advertisements for analysis using a combined, linguis-tic and rhetorical classification. Specifically, we analyzed the linguistic devices on lexical, semantic, morphological, and syntactic levels, and the rhetorical devices as a separate category, based on Aristotle’s concepts of ethos, pathos, and logos. The initial assumption was that effective advertising would employ strategies across all linguistic levels, but the second assumption was that most of them would appear on the lexical level, given the number of nouns, verbs, adjec-tives, and English loans in ads that contribute to showing the products in the best possible light. Results: We identified 258 devices, of which 235 were lin-guistic and 23 were rhetorical. Devices on all linguistic lev-els were used in the analysis. The majority of techniques were found at the lexical level (n = 203), followed by the se-mantic (n = 23), rhetorical (n = 23), morphological (n = 5), and syntactic (n = 4) devices. Conclusion: Employing devices across all linguistic levels is understandable given advertisers’ inclination to utilize all available means to shape ads that can boost sales. Lexical level offers the broadest array of words to directly praise and glorify the product – an approach advertisers believe is the best and easiest way to persuade potential consumers. Combining different linguistic and rhetorical devices is a useful strategy for selling the product, which is always ad-vertisers’ ultimate goal

Aesop, the most famous fabulist of all time, is a figure shrouded in mystery. The story that Aesop met his end at Delphi, where he was sentenced to death and pushed off a cliff because he insulted the Delphians, is already current in the 5th century BC. When Socrates turns Aesop into verse as he is awaiting execution, he seems attracted by their earthy wisdom. But the ancient thinkers who are most attracted to the fable are more interested in their ability to use them as rhetorical devices which can be used in persuading a public audience of some point of view. Though the real Aesop is obscure and inaccessible, we still have an ancient account of him in a Life of Aesop which bears, in its earliest version, the title The Book of Xanthus the Philosopher and His Slave Aesop.

The subject of rhetoric is all the realities. It impregnates not only the language, but also thought and action. Rhetoric and advertising are discourses and languages; and language is the home of being (Heidegger), through which we access to the knowledge of the object. The advertising message expressive power springs up largely from rhetorical devices as substitution. The elements of a substitution seem to require an account of similarity between them. Something must be replaced and the contribution must be something new. The metaphor is a figure of speech replacement for excellence and is based on the relationship of similarity and solidarity between the terms of the replacement to represent being. Advertising creates the concept and the concept refers to the subject of advertising, or to the products, services or brand. The concept invented the object in that regard has been created by powers from the rhetoric, and for that invention relies on the figures of classical rhetoric and resources to build the invention. The metaphor encourages its existence as a rhetorical device, in addition to replacement, its relationship to reality and the concept of metaphorical truth. Advertising makes the product easier to understand and more desirable. It creates the conditions for credibility to attach an identity to the original product, offers a new and attractive view. Advertising is the art of persuading selling.