Abstract
The management of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants in zoos involves a range of practices including feeding, exercise, training, and environmental enrichment. These practices are necessary to meet the elephants’ nutritional, healthcare, and husbandry needs. However, these practices are not standardized, resulting in likely variation among zoos as well as differences in the way they are applied to individual elephants within a zoo. To characterize elephant management in North America, we collected survey data from zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, developed 26 variables, generated population level descriptive statistics, and analyzed them to identify differences attributable to sex and species. Sixty-seven zoos submitted surveys describing the management of 224 elephants and the training experiences of 227 elephants. Asian elephants spent more time managed (defined as interacting directly with staff) than Africans (mean time managed: Asians = 56.9%; Africans = 48.6%; p<0.001), and managed time increased by 20.2% for every year of age for both species. Enrichment, feeding, and exercise programs were evaluated using diversity indices, with mean scores across zoos in the midrange for these measures. There were an average of 7.2 feedings every 24-hour period, with only 1.2 occurring during the nighttime. Feeding schedules were predictable at 47.5% of zoos. We also calculated the relative use of rewarding and aversive techniques employed during training interactions. The population median was seven on a scale from one (representing only aversive stimuli) to nine (representing only rewarding stimuli). The results of our study provide essential information for understanding management variation that could be relevant to welfare. Furthermore, the variables we created have been used in subsequent elephant welfare analyses.
Highlights
There is significant interest within and beyond the zoological community in understanding the management of Asian (Elephas maximas) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants in zoos, as it relates to evaluating practices that are relevant to welfare [1,2], such as feeding, training, exercise, husbandry and environmental enrichment
Our surveys generated a large number of variables that are important for understanding how elephants are managed in North American zoos
We and our colleagues have found that the management factors described in this paper play an important role in predicting stereotypic behavior rates, walking rates, female reproductive physiology, and body condition in zoo elephants
Summary
There is significant interest within and beyond the zoological community in understanding the management of Asian (Elephas maximas) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants in zoos, as it relates to evaluating practices that are relevant to welfare [1,2], such as feeding, training, exercise, husbandry and environmental enrichment. While these practices are required elements of all elephant programs accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) [3], they are not standardized. This lack of research on management has been cited as one of the major impediments to formally assessing the welfare of zoo animals [4]
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